Endocrinology Flashcards
What functions of the body are regulated by the hypothalamus?
Appetite, thirst, thermal regulation and sleep/waking, circadian rhythm, the menstrual cycle, stress and mood
What eight hormones does the hypothalamus produce?
Growth-hormone releasing hormone Gonadotropin releasing hormone Somatostatin Dopamine Thyrotrophin releasing hormone Corticotropic releasing hormone Vasopressin Oxytocin
What are the only inhibitory hormones produced by the hypothalamus?
Somatostatin and dopamine
Which two hormones are released by the posterior pituitary gland?
Vasopressin and oxytocin
What are the functions of oxytocin?
Produces milk ejection in females and uterine myometrial contractions
What hormones are released by the anterior pituitary gland?
Leutinising hormone Follicle stimulating hormone Growth hormone Prolactin Thyroid stimulating hormone Adreno-corticotrophic hormone
What is the most common cause of pituitary disease?
Benign pituitary adenomas
What are the three major pathologies caused by secretory pituitary adenomas?
- Growth hormone excess causes acromegaly in adults and gigantism in children
- Prolactin excess
- Excess ACTH secretion causes Cushing’s Disease
What are the symptoms of prolactin excess?
Galactorrhoea, amenorrhoea, erectile dysfunction
May be clinically silent
What local structures may be affected by either pressure or infiltration of a pituitary lesion? What are the associated pathologies of each?
Optic chiasm - bitemporal hemianopia
Cavernous sinus - CN III, IV and VI lesions
Bony structures and menignes - causing headaches
Hypothalamic centres - obesity, altered appetite, thirst, precocious puberty in children
Ventricles - hydrocephalus
Adenomas are the most common pituitary lesion. Give examples of some rarer ones.
Craniopharyngiomas, sarcoidosis, cystic lesions
Describe the clinical presentation of gondaotrophin deficiency
Loss of libido, amenorrhoea, erectile dysfunction
In hypopituartism, rather than prolactin deficiency, hyperprolactinaemia occurs. Why is this?
Early loss of the inhibitory effect of dopamine on prolactin leads to hyperprolactinaemia in hypopituartism
What are the symptoms of hyperprolactinaemia?
Galactorrhoea (spontaneous milk ejection unrelated to child birth or breast feeding), erectile dysfunction or amenorrhoea
Describe the clinical presentation of growth hormone deficiency.
Consider presentations in both children and adults
Short stature in children
Often clinically silent in adults
Long-standing hypopituartism can give what classical appearance of the skin?
Hairless and pale (alabaster skin)
What is Sheehan’s Syndrome?
Pituitary infarct following severe post-partum haemorrhage
What is pituitary apoplexy? Describe it clinical picture
Rapid enlargement of a pituitary tumour due to severe infarct or haemorrhage.
Clinical picture includes severe headache and sudden severe visual loss. Ocular palsies, fever, neck stiffness and photophobia may also be present.
Outline the emergency investigations of pituitary apoplexy
Investigations: Serum cortisol, IGF-1, GH, Prolactin, T3/T4, LH, FSH, testosterone or oestrodiol FBC, U/Es, LFTs Assessment of visual acuity Urgent MRI to confirm
Outline the emergency treatment of pituitary apoplexy
- ABCDE approach
- Hydrocortisone 100mg bolus IV followed by 2-4mg/hr continuous IV infusion
What important investigations should be performed in the case of hyperprolactinaemia?
Serum prolactin
Exclude macroprolactinaemia
Thyroid function tests
MRI of pituitary
How is hyperprolactinaemia treated?
Dopamine agonists e.g. cabergoline
Bromocriptine is preferred if pregnancy is planned
What approach is taken for surgery of the pituitary?
Trans-sphenoidal
Outline five symptoms of acromegaly
Any of the following:
Change in facial appearance, headaches, deep voice, goitre, tiredness, weight gain, breathlessness, excessive sweating, muscle/joint pain, amenorrhoea, galactorrhoea, impotence
Outline five signs of acromegaly
Any of the following:
Prominent supraorbital ridge, interdental separation, visual field defects, spade-like hands, carpal tunnel syndrome, hypertension, heart failure, oedema, proximal myopathy
What investigations are indicated in the case of acromegaly?
Plasma GH
Serum IGF-1
Glucose tolerance (diagnostic)
MRI scan of pituitary
How is acromegaly treated?
Transphenoidal surgical ressection
Medical therapy (on the failure or unsuitability of surgery):
- Somatostatin analogues (first line) e.g. octreotide, lanreotide
- Dopamine agonists e.g. cabergoline
- Pegvisomant (GH-receptor antagonsit) - last resort
What is the difference between Cushing’s Disease and Cushing’s Syndrome?
Cushing’s disease refers to a specific pathology; primary hypercortisolism caused by a pituitary adenoma
Cushing’s Syndrome is the term used to describe the clincial state of increased free circulating glucocorticoids, most commonly caused by therapeutic administration.
What thyroid hormone is predominantly secreted from the thyroid gland?
T4
Which of the thyroid hormones is more biologically active?
T3
Where does the majority of circulating T3 come from?
Peripheral conversion of T4 into T3
Over 99% of T3/T4 is bound to plasma proteins in the circulation. The most abundant of these proteins is called what?
Thyroxine-binding globulin
With regards to relative concentrations of both TSH, T3 and T4. What is the hormonal profile of a patient with thyrotoxicosis?
Decreased TSH
Increased T3 and T4
With regards to relative concentrations of both TSH, T3 and T4. What is the hormonal profile of a patient with primary hypothyroidism?
Increased TSH
Decreased/normal T3/T4
With regards to relative concentrations of both TSH, T3 and T4. What is the hormonal profile of a patient with TSH deficiency?
Low TSH, T3 and T4
With regards to relative concentrations of both TSH, T3 and T4. What is the hormonal profile of a patient with T3 toxicosis?
Low TSH
Normal T4
High T3
Thyroid function tests are indicated in what patient groups?
- Those with signs/symptoms suggestive of thyroid disease
- Those receiving treatment for thyroid disease
- Those being treated with drugs that can cause thyroid dysfunction e.g. amiodarone
- Post-irradiation
- Post-surgery - subtotal thyroidectomy
Outline five different aetiologies of hypothyroidism
Autoimmune (Hashimoto's) Post-partum Iatrogenic Drug induced Iodine deficiency Congenital
What antibodies are associated with Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis?
Serum antibodies against:
- Thyroglobulin
- Thyroid peroxidase enzyme (thyroid macrosomal antibodies)
- TSH receptor sites
Outline the potential disease progression in post-partum thyroiditis
Can cause either hypo- or hyperthyroidism or both sequentially.
Has the potential to progress to permanent disease
Give some examples of drugs that can cause drug induced hypothyroidism (4)
Hint - CALI
Carbimazole, amiodarone, lithium, interferon
What does the term ‘myxoedema’ refer to?
Accumulation of mucopolysaccharide in subcutaneous tissues.
Outline some symptoms of hypothyroidism
Tiredness, Malaise, Weight gain, Cold intolerance
Goitre, dry and brittle hair, course and dry skin
Depression, Psychosis, Coma, Poor memory
Athralgia, myalgia, muscle weakness, low libido, puffy eyes, anorexia
Outline some signs of hypothyroidism
Mental slowness, ataxia, poverty of movement, bradycardia, cold peripheries, carpal tunnel syndrome, hypertension, hypothermia, proximal myopathy
What investigations are considered in a suspected case of hypothyroidism?
Serum TSH (high with clinical picture confirms diagnosis) Thyroid antibodies Other features: - Normocytic normochromic anaemia - Hyperlipidaemia - Hyponatraemia - Increase creatine kinase if myopathy
How is hypothyroidism managed?
Lifelong levothyroxine (daily dose of 1. micrograms/kg)
Average 100/150 micrograms
Efficacy is assessed with thyroid function tests at 6 weeks post-commencement followed by annual checkups
How is subclinical hypothyroidism managed?
Usually a consistently slightly increased TSH and normal T3/4 is indicative or early chronic autoimmune thyroiditis and therefore treatment with levothyroxine is recommended.
What is the typical presentation of myoedema coma?
Confusion, coma with hypothermia, hypoventilation, hypoglycaemia and hyponatraemia
How is myxoedema coma investigated in the acute presentation?
Serum TSH, T4 and cortisol
Full blood count, U/Es, blood glucose and blood cultures
ECG monitoring for cardiac arrhythmias
How is myxoedema coma managed in the acute presentation?
T3 orally or IV (2.5-5 micrograms every 8 hours)
Oxygen
Gradual rewarming
Hydrocortisone (100mg IV)
Glucose infusion
Supportive management of comatose patient
What three intrinsic disorders account for the majority of cases of hyperthyroidism?
Graves’ disease
Toxic adenoma
Toxic multinodular goitre
What is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism?
Graves’ disease
What is the pathophysiology of Graves’ disease?
IgG antibodies binding to the TSH receptor and stimulating thyroid hormone production
What is de Quervain’s thyroiditis?
Transient hyperthyroidism caused by acute inflammation of the gland, most likely as a result of a viral infection
What are the accompanying features of de Quervain’s thyroiditis?
Fever, malaise, pain in neck
How is de Quervain’s thyroiditis treated?
Aspirin
Reserving prednisolone for those severely affected
What signs/symptoms are only seen in Graves’ disease?
Opthalmopathy, pretibial myxoedema and thyroid acropachy
What is pretibial myxoedema?
Rasied, purple-red symmetrical skin lesions over the anterolateral aspects of the shins
What is thyroid acropachy?
Clubbing, swollen fingers and periosteal bone formation
How may hyperthyroidism present in the elderly?
Think subtle cardiac signs and misleading symptoms
Atrial fibrillation/heart failure
or
Apathetic thyrotoxicosis
What is apathetic thyrotoxicosis?
When a patient presents with signs of hypothyroidism but their hormone profile shows the opposite.
What are the relevant investigations for hyperthyroidism?
Serum TSH (suppressed) Serum T3/T4 (elevated)
TSH antibodies are highly sensitive/specific for Graves’
Thyroid ultrasound can help identify multi-nodular goitre from toxic adenoma
List some common symptoms of hyperthyroidism
Weight loss Irritability Malaise Itching Sweating Palpitations Breathlessness Thirst Loss of libido Goitre
List some common signs of hyperthyroidism
Tremor Hyperkinesis Psychosis Tachycardia Warm peripheries Lid lag and "stare" Goitre and bruit
How is hyperthyroidism managed?
Anti-thyroid drugs (carbimazole) prescribed in conjunction with a beta-blocker (typically propranolol) for rapid symptomatic control
Interventions such as radioactive iodine and surgery is also considered if medical therapy fails or relapses
What is the most severe complication of carbimazole?
Agranulocytosis
What is the main contraindication of radioactive iodine treatment?
Pregnancy or breastfeeding
What is thyroid crisis (storm)? What causes it?
A rare- life threatening condition in which there is rapid deterioration of thyrotoxicosis with hyperpyrexia, tachycardia, extreme restlessness which eventually progresses to delerium, coma and death.
It is usually precipitated by infection, stress or surgery