Urban issues and challenges Flashcards
Urbanisation
An increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas.
Population density
How crowded the people are that live in a certain area.
Urban areas
Towns or cities with a high population density.
Rural areas
Countryside locations with a low population density.
What percentage of the world’s population lives in urban areas?
≈ 55%
This is constantly increasing, and is projected to increase into the future.
HIC
High income country
LIC
Low income country
NEE
Newly emerging economy
What makes a country an HIC?
-If its more economically developed.
-Most have already experienced urbanisation.
Give an example of a HIC.
-UK
-Japan
What percentage of the population is urban in HICs? (part of urban trend)
≈ 80%
What percentage of the population is urban in LICs? (part of urban trend)
≈ 30%
What percentage of the population is urban in NEEs? (part of urban trend)
≈ 50%
Although for countries experiencing rapid urban growth, this figure can be much higher.
What makes a country an LIC?
-If it is less economically developed
Give an example of an LIC
-Ethiopia
-Afghanistan
Give an example of an NEE
-Brazil
-China
What makes a country an NEE?
-If economic development is increasing rapidly
Outline the global pattern of urban change.
-Today, the world population is around 8 Billion, but this is increasing.
-This increase is happening fastest in towns and cities.
-Today, all countries around the world are becoming more urban and less rural.
-This is happening faster in some countries than others.
Economic
Relating to trade, industry, finance.
Social
Relating to people and activities involving people.
Environmental
Relating to the natural world and the impact of human activity on its condition.
What is the urban trend in HICs?
Many people in HICs leave urban areas for less crowded, rural areas.
They can do this because jobs, healthcare, and education are distributed more evenly.
This means that the rate of urbanisation in HICs is low and slowing down - usually under 1%.
What is the urban trend in LICs?
Most LICs have high rates of urbanisation - up to 6%.
However, this is relatively slow compared to NEEs.
What is the urban trend in NEEs?
The rate of urbanisation is typically around 2%.
NEEs home the fastest growing urban populations.
Name the factors affecting (increasing) the rate of urbanisation.
-rural to urban migration (the push/pull theory)
-natural increase
What is rural to urban migration?
The movement of people from the countryside to cities.
Give examples of environmental push factors (rural to urban migration)
-natural disasters
-desertification
Give examples of economic pull factors (rural to urban migration)
-more jobs
-better paid jobs
What is natural increase?
Population growth occurring because the birth rate is higher than the death rate in an area.
What are high rates of urbanisation leading to?
The emergence of megacities.
What is a megacity?
An urban area with more than 10 million residents.
Give an example of a megacity
-Mumbai, in India
Megacities statistics
-There were 34 megacities in 2020
-The vast majority are located in LICs and NEEs
-The number of megacities is expected to have increased to 48 by 2035
By what year is it predicted that most people will be living in urban areas?
2050
Where are the fastest growing collection of megacities globally?
LICs and NEES as they are urbanising rapidly.
Why is there often a lower death rate in cities?
Healthcare is better and more readily available.
Push factors
Negative features of a place that make people want to move away.
Pull factors
Positive features of a place that make people want to move there.
Give examples of social pull factors (rural to urban migration)
-access to better healthcare
-access to better education opportunities
-family members living in urban areas
-the chance of a better quality of life
Give an example of economic push factors (rural to urban migration)
-mechanisation of agricultural equipment (things like combine harvesters)
The mechanisation of farming equipment means that…
(social/economic push factor)
…less people are required to do manual labour on farms, which means that many are displaced from their jobs and need to find other work placements.
They are inclined to move to urban areas/the city because more job opportunities outside of the agricultural field are available here, often with better pay.
In rural areas, desertification and soil erosion can lead to…
(social/environmental push factor)
…reduced crop yields because they make farming difficult.
Poor harvests can lead to malnutrition or famine which means that the death rate is often higher in rural areas where all food is sourced locally.
People may be inclined to move to urban areas/ the city for more food security.
Drought and other climate hazards…
(economic/environmental push factor)
…reduce crop yields.
[Alongside famine] This means that farmers in rural areas lack income from their sector because they can’t sell as much produce as they’d like to, which disables a good quality of life.
Farmers may be inclined to move to the city to look for jobs with a more stable source of income (and even disposable income) to improve their quality of life.
In rural areas, there are few doctors or hospitals. This means that…
(social push factor)
…it is more difficult for people to access proper medical care when it’s needed, which leads to more sickness and a higher mortality rate.
Rural areas are restricted with poor road access. This means that…
(social push factor)
…it is difficult to import goods from elsewhere (like from urban areas), which means that people living in these areas likely have a poorer quality of life than those living in the city.
There are more well-paid jobs in urban areas. This means that…
(social/economic pull factor)
…many people migrate to cities to earn a higher income, which consequently means that their quality of life can improve.
For example, earning well allows for a disposable income to spend on enjoyable activities such as entertainments or lunch out with family or friends.
Furthermore, the taxes they pay are likely to directly fund local services such as healthcare and education, benefiting them individually.
A range of entertainments are available in urban areas/cities. This means that…
(social pull factor)
…people migrate here for more opportunities to enjoy themselves (than is available in rural areas).
This allows them to have a good and sustained quality of life.
There is a greater chance of getting an education in…
(social pull factor)
…urban areas than in rural areas.
This means that more people will be able to read and write in urban areas, leading to a higher literacy rate.
Furthermore, people who are literate are more likely to be employed than those who aren’t, which results in more job security.
In urban areas, there are better medical facilities with trained doctors, This means that…
(social pull factor)
…people here are far more likely to receive medical attention when it’s needed, which reduces the risk of sickness (and even death in emergencies).
Hence, the mortality rate is much lower in urban areas.
Large companies base in urban areas/cities and offer skilled jobs. This means that…
(economic pull factor)
…individuals migrate to the city to work for these companies (which often pay at higher rates than for simpler jobs in rural areas like farming) meaning their quality of life can improve.
Furthermore, large companies require a large workforce, increasing people’s likelihood of being hired.
How do we calculate natural increase?
Birth rate of population - Death rate of population.
In 1978, what percentage of China’s population lived in cities?
18%
In 2018, what percentage of China’s population lived in cities?
59%
When did urbanisation start in the UK?
The early 1800s.
By 1851, about 2/5 of the population lived in towns and cities.
Name two features of urbanisation
-A mixture of land uses
-Established infrastructures
Civil wars, like the Syrian Civil War, can…
…force people to leave a place.
Give examples of environmental push factors (rural to urban migration)
-Land becoming uninhabitable due to processes like desertification
-People’s homes and jobs destroyed by a natural disaster
What is meant by ‘uneven population distribution’?
Some areas being more densely populated (i.e. homing more people) than others.
Give an overview of the distribution of the UK’s population.
The UK’s population is distributed unevenly.
82% of the UK’s population live in urban areas; the rest in rural areas.
25% of the people living in urban areas live in London/ other areas of South East England, where there are more than 200 people per square kilometre.
Which parts are the UK are sparsely populated?
Highland areas of Scotland and Wales.
You know the high proportion of people living in London?
How much of the UK’s GDP do they contribute to?
≈80%
Population density
How crowded or spread out people are within an area.
Give physical reasons as to why urban centres have grown in the UK.
(distribution of major cities in the UK)
-Mostly found in lowland areas
-Located near natural resources like coal (e.g. Newcastle) and iron ore (e.g. Sheffield)
-Located near rivers (natural trade routes)
-Located on the coast e.g. Bristol (so ports for travel and trade routes)
Give human reasons as to why urban centres have grown in the UK.
(distribution of major cities in the UK)
-Growth of industry (factories)
-Financial centres (e.g. London)
-Administrative (government) centres (e.g. London)
-Scientific centres (with scientific advancements)
-Capital cities
-These attract migrants
Social
To do with people, their lives, their society, and culture.
Environmental
To do with where people live (this can be natural or man-made).
Economic
To do with money and jobs.
What are the features of sustainable urban living?
-Water and energy conservation
-Recycling of waste
-Creating green space
Urban sustainability
Involves creating an environment that meets the social, economic, and environmental needs of people now, without reducing the ability of people to meet their needs in the future.
How can the use of energy and water be made more sustainable?
Conservation schemes
Energy conservation schemes
One such scheme involves (the government) ensuring all new homes meet minimum energy efficiency requirements.
To do so, windows can be double-glazed to reduce heat loss by convection, and walls insulated to reduce heat loss by conduction.
If less heat is lost, this means that more of the fuel burned for energy will be used efficiently, which means that fossil fuels are not wasted.
Alternatively, governments can promote the use of renewable energy (from solar/wind/HEP) or encourage the use of public transport to reduce CO₂ emissions.
More than 90% of Bristol’s population…
…live within 350m of either parkland or waterways.
Energy conservation schemes example
The city of Curitiba, Brazil, gets 84% of its energy from renewable HEP.
And in 2009, Curitiba renovated its ‘green line’ transport system - dedicating bus lanes for biofuel buses.
These schemes have been successful - Curitiba’s CO2 emissions from electricity are about 65% less than other Latin American cities.
Why is burning fossil fuels to generate electricity not sustainable/
-They’ll run out
-They contribute to climate change trough the production of greenhouse gases
Why are energy conservation schemes put in place?
To reduce consumption of fossil fuels, and thus encourage sustainable living.
Water conservation schemes
One such scheme is rainwater harvesting, in which rainwater is collected in water buts for use in gardens.
This means that people conserve tap water, which means no more is taken than can be replaced.
Why are water conservation schemes put in place?
To prevent more water being used than can naturally be replaced , and thus encourage sustainable living.
Water conservation scheme example
In Curitiba, Brazil, the government has introduced various policies to promote sustainable water use.
These include the installation of water meters and hosepipe bans.
The city has separate systems for drinking/ non-drinking water so drinking water is conserved.
These schemes have successfully reduced Curitiba’s water consumption - it’s around 1/2 that of other Latin American Cities.
Other water conservation methods
-Turning off taps when not in use
-Hosepipe bans
-Installing toilets that use less water
-Instilling of water meters so people can keep track of how much they’re paying
How can waste be managed?
-Kerbside collection of recyclable materials
-Building recycling facilities to deal with larger items e.g. fridges
-Websites where items are passed on for free like Freecycle
Why is landfill unsustainable?
-Resources that could be recycled are wasted
-Takes up space which will eventually run out
-Decomposing waste releases greenhouse gases
Waste management example
-In Curitiba, Brazil, 100% of waste is collected, 70% of which is recycled.
-To further encourage recycling, the government launched the ‘Green Exchange Programme’ in 1989
-Residents in areas hard to access receive 1kg of food (or bus tickets) for every 4kg of recyclable waste collected.
-This scheme has led to the collection of 6800 tonnes of waste each year
Why are waste management schemes put in place?
More recycling = fewer resources used e.g. metal cans can be melted down to make more cans
Less waste means less in landfill.
How does creating green spaces help cities to become sustainable?
Cities can be noisy/dirty/busy/hot.
This means that creating green spaces can ensure urban areas remain places where people want to live and work.
What do green spaces provide?
-Naturally cooler areas where people can relax in hot weather
-Encouragement to exercise and use alternative transport like bikes (this in turn makes people healthier and less stressed)
-A break form the noise and bustle of the city
What is an environmental benefit of green spaces?
-Reduce air pollution be absorbing CO₂
-Reduce flooding by reducing surface runoff when it rains
Green space example
Barigui Park, Curitiba, is designed to absorb flood waters preventing the need for unsightly flood defences.
What urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion?
-Using public transport
-Managing the flow of traffic
Using public transport to reduce traffic congestion example.
-In London, ‘Oyster cards’ are available
-They allow people to travel on most of the city’s transport networks without buying separate tickets
-This is quick and easy
-The underground system itself takes around 3 million people off the roads each day
Managing traffic flow example
Bus priority lanes prevent buses being hold up in traffic.
This means that bus journeys are quicker than private travel, making them more attractive and hence reducing the number of vehicles on the road.
For example, Curitiba’s BRT system uses designated bus lanes, with over 700,000 passengers per day.
This allows Curitiba’s carbon emissions to be 25% lower per capita than the average Brazilian city.
The city’s main shopping area is also pedestrianised, further encouraging people to leave their cars at home.
(Children paint bricks at the entrance = tradition= blocked off roads.)
Other ways to manage traffic
-Pedestrianisation
-Parking restrictions
-Self-service bicycles (cheaper and more eco-friendly)
-Congestion charging (discouraged=s drivers entering the city at peak times)
Urban sustainability requires the management of what?
-Resources
-Transport
Why is an improved living environment important?
-might attract more businesses to the area (improving employment)
-reduces crime rate
-protects the environment from irreversible damage.
