Urban Environments

Question 1

characteristics of cities

Answer 1

• intense human interaction
• economies of scale
• concentration of workforce
• high resource consumption and waste production
• cultural diversity and segregation
• their future dependend on sustainable management

Question 2

centripetal movements

Answer 2

moving inwards towards centers; migrations into cities from smaller towns

Question 3

rural push factors and urban pull factors

Answer 3

Rural push factors

High rates of population growth have put pressure on natural land resources such as water and energy and reduced the size of land holdings until they become unproductive. New farming technology has favoured the rich farmer but, for those at the other end of the socio-economic scale, unemployment or underemployment are typical.

Urban pull factors

Higher wages and more varied employment and education opportunities. Immigrants are willing to tolerate poor living conditions initially, in the hope for a better future. The attraction of “bright lights” are often cited as a pull factor, but the reality is that many migrants are intimidated by the urban environment and would prefer the tranquility and security of their original community.

Question 4

centrifugal movements

Answer 4

decentralisation: outward moving populations from the centre of the city to its periphery, resulting in an expansion of the city.

Suburbanisation is the outward growth of towns and cities to engulf surrounding villages and rural areas. It is the result of rapid urban population growth and a demand for better housing and more space. Rising disposable incomes have enabled people to meet both the cost of new housing and the associated transport costs of commuting back to the city centre for work, which is global trend.

Industrial decentralisation may also occur, providing more work in the periphery. Congestion, pollution and lack of community may be the push factor.

Question 5

family life cycle

Answer 5

A person is likely to move around different zones of the city, depending on their age and their need for a house of a certain size.

Question 6

economic growth in (mega)cities

Answer 6

Urban economies are almost always more productive than rural ones. Most of the wealth is produced in megacities. 2% of China’s population lives in Shanghai, a city that produces 12% of the country’s output. Industrial activity is higher in cities because of greater efficiency; there will be a large, concentrated, educated, accessible, skilled workforce.

Megacities are large metropolitan areas or urban agglomerations of 10 million citizens or more.

LEDCs now hosts more megacities the MEDCs. Megacities bring together people and resources, and are able to generate wealth efficiently through economies of scale. Many would classify as world cities, global hubs for dynamic economic activity, social interaction and innovation.

Common problems include:

• high population concentration and density, uncontrolled spatial expansion
• increasing wealth disparity
• strains on water supply

Question 7

case study: megacity

Answer 7

Shanghai

Question 8

measuring residential segragation

Answer 8

using the location quotient (LQ)

For example:

• Neighbourhood X has 25% of Bangladeshi population and the city average is 10%.
• The LQ would be 2.5, a higher than average concentration.

LQ < 1 means no concentration

• LQ = 1 means average concentration*
• LQ > 1 means above average concentration*

Question 9

reasons behind segragation

Answer 9

• late arrival in the city
• inability to speak English on arrival
• wish to maintain cultural identity
• common original of migrants, so that segregation brought security
• poverty, which leads to high concentration and overcrowding

Question 10

measuring deprivation (lack of benefits)

Answer 10

physical indicators — such as quality of housing, levels of pollution, incidence of crime, vandalism, graffiti

social indicators — including crime (reported and fear of), levels of health and access to health care, standards of education

economic indicators — access to employment, unemployment and underemployment, levels of income

political indicators — opportunities to vote and to take part in community organisation

Question 11

why are informal economies growing?

+ pros and cons

Answer 11

It is an inevitable outcome of rapid urbanisation.

Informal economies employ more than 60% of the urban population in South America and Asia and more than 70% in sub-Saharan Africa.

Most of the time they are unskilled and poorly paid employees.

Advantages

• Plays a vital role in the developing urban economies of many LEDCs and semi-LEDCs, as it provides unskilled and semi-skilled workers (e.g. migrants) with casual, temporary, but immediate work.
• much easier, cheaper and faster to set up; preferable in low-income countries.
• are often interdependent; goods produced at minimum costs in small workshops are then passed on to be finished and sold within the formal economy on the national and international market.
• Makes a significant contribution to urban wealth and is the basis of development (e.g. Industrial Revolution in 19th century Europe).

Disadvantages

• It has been unfairly associated with activities such as drug pushing, prostitution, political corruption, bribery, and smuggling. This threatens the security of the residents, turns away potential visitors and downgrades the city’s international image.
• It lacks the legal property ownership, limiting access to credit.
• Workers are often exposed to health and safety risks and deprived of the rights and benefits associated with law and regulation. Lack of protective clothing, adequate instructions, etc.

Question 12

case study: informal economies

Answer 12

Dharavi, Mumbai

Its population has achieved a unique informal “self-help” urban development over years, without any external aid.

…

Question 13

case study: overcoming housing problems

Answer 13

Mumbai and nanohomes outside cities

In conclusion, there is no easy solution to Mumbai’s housing problems.

pros:

• inexpensive
• can be built by unskilled workers
• overcomes problems of overcrowding

cons:

• insufficient opportunities for informal business
• Ex-slum dwellers will now have to commute back to the centre to work, causing further problems of traffic pollution, cost and congestion.
• Displacement will disrupt extended families, their social networks and security
• Close business linages that existed within the informal economy of the slum will be lost.

Question 14

Large cities are attractive for industries because:

Answer 14

• good infrastructure
• large markets
• best access to international markets (especially with ports)
• the place where major innovation and ideas come from
• a variety of labour is avaiblable

Question 15

main components and causes of the Brown Agenda (environemtal issues) in cities

+ the case with Mexico City

Answer 15

The greatest concentration of environmental problems occurs in cities experiencing rapid growth, such as Mexico City.

main components:

• issues caused by limited availability of land, water and services
• problems such as toxic hazardous waste, pollution of water, air and soil, or industrial accidents

In the case of Mexico City, it is a basin where cool air can remain trapped by a larger layer of warm air above it: temperate inversion. The air fails to mix and vehicle emissions create intense pollution. Ozone is a byproduct, and is a strong respiratory irritant (causing discomfort).

Question 16

consequences of urban heat island intensity (mircoclimate)

Answer 16

the difference in temperature between the urban and the surrounding rural area, which is usually 2-4°C and causes:

• respiratory problems
• human discomfort due to high levels of humidity, atmospheric dust and poor air quality
• diseases due to the increased likelihood of vector-and waterborne diseases in poor cities
• energy waste as warmer climate boosts the use of air-condition systems
• causes heat stress and illness, through which working days are lost and productivity lowered
• increases environmental degradation, where urban fabric such as rubber and tarmac degrade, due to the intense heat, creating a long-term costs to city authorities

Question 17

case study: urban heat waves

Answer 17

a growing problem, affecting cities irrespective of their latitude and climate type with high death rates

• associated with UHI, high-density residential living, high levels of vehicles and industrial emissions

In the daytime, in stark contrast to rural areas, intense solar radiation heats the ground surface. The weather it typically anticyclonic — clear and calm — during heat waves.

For instance, during the Paris heatwave of 2003, a persistent anticyclone over Europe blocked rain-bearing winds from the North Atlantic, allowing hot air from North Africa to penetrate. It killed 30 000 people in Europe, most of them in cities where heating was most intense. 9 consecutive days of more than 38°C caused dehydration and cardiovascular lines, and high levels of ground-level ozone and nitrous oxides induced or aggravated respiratory problems. Most afflicted were the elderly and people with pre-existing health problems. Because intense heat never experienced by Europe, air conditioning was not common, even in hospitals. The french “heatwave emergency plan” was successful but not a long term solution over overheating cities.

Question 18

causes and features of social urban stress

Answer 18

rapid expansion of urban populations, particularly in developing countries, overwhelms the abilitiy of cities to provide adequate and fair services like

• housing
• sanitation
• drinking water
• education
• employment

What adds to social urban stress is:

• Rising inequalities - intense class differences
• noise and pollution
• overcrowding
• fear of crime

Question 19

elements of housing management

Answer 19

1. quality of housing — with proper water, sanitation, electricity, and space
2. quantity of housing — having enough units to meet demand
3. affordability of housing
4. tenure or housing (ownership and rental) (i.e. residents are not at risk of eviction)

Question 20

types of actors in crime

+

causes of crime and violence

Answer 20

Causes:

• Inequality (Gini coefficient positively correlates with crime)
• Unemployment; particularly youths from 15 - 24
• Limited police presence; due to rapid urbanisation
• Opportunity; there is a greater concentration of wealthy potential victims, more opportunities to commit crime, and a more developed second-hand market for expensive stolen goods. Criminal networks can be persuasive and influential towards certain disadvantaged groups.
• Poor urban planning; for example, unlit or hidden streets with few escape routes
• Globalisation and ICT; ease of communication through mobile phones and other devices assists the efficiency of organised crime

Question 22

consequences of urban crime

Answer 22

Endemic insecurity can generate a culture of fear, leading to segregation and social fragmentation and the creation of fortified spaces. Tourist and FDI are dramatically reduced.

Gated communities

While high levels of violence do occur, anxiety generated by the perception of crime and endemic violence often outstrips the actual level of danger. Gated communities predominate where inequalities are pronounced and public security is inadequate. Most are found in North America, South Africa, and Brazil. Unfortunately, this often results in segregation along ethnic, religious or racial lines.

Question 23

benefits of compact cities

Answer 23

• minimise the amount of distance traveled
• use less space
• require less infrastructure (pipes, cables, roads, etc.)
• are easier to provide a public transport network for
• reduce urban sprawl

Question 24

vertical development and urban biocapacities

Answer 24

cities like Toyko, use less than the average biocapcity of 1.7 hectars per person due to vertical development - using land in several ways at the same time, in contrast to extended cities, as seen in Australia or US.

Question 25

examples of sustainable strategies

Answer 25

Reducing pollution: day without car campaigns (Mexico saw air pollution fall 21% in the first year), stricter regulation as seen in Cubatao, Brazil or regions in China.

Recycling: Shanghai employed more than 30,000 people retrieving and reselling reclaimed and recycled products. In Curibita, Brazil, 70% of households separate recycle rubbish (“garbage is not garbage” program), and in squatter settlements food and bus fares are exchanged for garbage (“purchase of garbage” program). 10% of the population in Curibita lives in favelas and have no garbage collection service as they live in outskirts of the city, with roads not drivable for trucks. Open air pits creates toxic fumes and increase rat and fly populations, increasing risk of disease. Infant mortality has consequentially decreased, environment improved, city litter decreased, and saving the expenditure for medicine.

In addition to saving resources such as 1,700 trees per day, the recycling programs also act as a social program where the locals earn from the recycled garbage and providing jobs for homeless and other socially excluded people.

• Environmental sustainability includes the management of waste products and pollution and conservation of resources such as water and energy.
• Social sustainability is the ability of the urban population to live and reproduce itself in a reasonably safe, attractive and healthy environment that offers opportunities for employment, education, housing cultural life, entertainment and social interaction.

Question 26

definition of central business destrict (CBD)

Answer 26

The commercial and economic core, most accessible public transport, the location with the highest land values.

Question 27

conurbation

Answer 27

urban agglomeration

Question 28

definition and types of urban metabolism

Answer 28

a model to facilitate the description and analysis of the flows of the materials and energy within cities.

• linear metabolism — an urban world process has a clear resource in-put and waste out-put. The accelerated use of linear metabolisms in urban environments is creating an impending global crisis as cities grow
• circular metabolism — there is nearly no waste and almost everything is re-used, natural world process

Question 29

some facts

Answer 29

Earlier cities had the same or higher densities that todays shanghai because everything had to be in walking-distance.

Roughly 3% of the earth’s land surface is occupied by urban areas, with the highest concentrations occurring along the coasts and waterways

By 2030, 60% if the world population is predicted to be urban

Cities have existed for over 5,000 years. Even so, by 1800, only 2 per cent of the world’s population was urban. As we enter the “urban millennium”, half of the world’s people are living in towns and cities, with 180,000 people added to the urban population each day.

Question 30

case study: gentrification

Answer 30

Notting Hill

Where? — Notting is situated to the North West of London.

What? — Notting Hill used to be one of the worst slums in London, until the 1950’s when gentrification started.

Why? — The gentrification was brought about by a group of middle class people who didn’t want to live in the “bland and boring” suburbs, but wanted to live closer to the city which had cultural facilities such as the theatre and museums.

How? — Middle class families began to move into Notting Hill and gradually the housing and area bean to im,prove, as individual families made housing improvements and new businesses moved into the area.

Advantages:

• social mix of the area is changed, it becomes more affluent
• creates local employment in jobs such as building, designing and decorating
• number of leisure actives is increased
• area biomes dominated by yuppies — young up and coming professionals
• gentrification spreads to surrounding areas

Disadvantages:

• local people on low incomes may not afford the housing and move
• fiction may occur between newcomers/developers and the original residents
• the elderly may be pushed out as they may not be able to afford the rising costs

Question 31

What problems may occur as a result of large scale rural-urban migration?

Answer 31

• over crowding
• rising housing costs due to increased demand
• increased pollution due to more used transportation
• new conflict between old and new residents
• increased criminal activity
• spread of diseases
• forced gentrification —> suburbanisation or unattractive regions in cities
• ethical segregation and filtering

Question 32

gentrification occurs because

Answer 32

People are becoming richer and want to reduce commuting time by living close to the city centre. When those people move they bring other businesses with them like theaters and shopping malls – gentrification begins.

Question 33

causes of homogenisation of urban landscapes

Answer 33

causes

• improvements in ICT, so people in cities around the world are aware of opportunities and trends in other cities
• the increase in international migration and the spread of ideas and cultures
• time-space convergence, which allows improved interactions between places in a decreasing amount of time
• the desire of global brands (TNCs) such as McDonalds and to reach new markets
• improvements in standards of living and aspirations to be part of a global network of urban centres
• we have the same ideas of being successful and happy, being safe, clean and opportunity.
• globalisation of economic, cultural and political activity
• cultural diffusion, americanisation, westernisation, McDonaldisation

The point is that cities are increasingly globalised, increasingly heterogenous, and thus more similar now because they are all more diverse. This high level of diversity in the cities themselves is the same in cities all around the world, making them homogenous.

Furthermore, one cause against homogenisation is the competition of landscapes to want to be attractive to tourists. The branding of landscapes makes the region unique again. Symbolism (e.g. Big Ben in London) is making landscapes more special.