Patterns in Resource Consumption

Question 1

what is the ecological footprint and what does it take into account

Answer 1

the theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste, under prevailing technology, taking into account:

1. arable land (for crops),
2. pasture land (for animals),
3. forests (for fuel, furniture and buildings, climate stability, erosion prevention),
4. oceans (for fish),
5. infrastructure (transportation, factories and housing),
6. energy costs (land required for absorbing CO2 emissions and other energy wastes)

— species extinction and toxic pollution of air, water and land are not yet taking in account

Question 2

biocapacity of one person and what we actually use today (global average)

Answer 2

1.9 hectares it the maximum biocapacity earth can sustain

2.2 hectares per person is our current status

• living beyond the earth’s biocapacity causes failing natural ecosystems and climate change
• western consumption rates are the highest (we would need five planets)
• The global ecological footprint has grown from about 70% of the planet’s biocapacity in 1961 to about 120% in 1999. Future projections show that humanity’s footprint is likely to grow to about 180-220% of the earth’s biocapacity by the year 2050.

Question 3

Living Planet Index

Answer 3

• measures trends in the earth’s biodiversity
• biodiversity has declined more than a third since 1970; China and US being largest contributors, 21% each
• people are running up an ecological debt of $4-4.5 trillion - “ecological credit crunch” as 30% more resources are used than can be replenished each year, leading to deforestation and more
• problem getting worse; more consumption through improved tech. and bigger populations.

Question 4

Theories of population and resources

Thomas Malthus ’s theory of population — 1798

Answer 4

• finite optimum population size in relation to resources and level of technology (food supply is the ultimate population check)
• if exceeded, then decrease in standard of living (war, famine, disease)
• population grows exponentially (or geometric), while food supply increases only at an arithmetic rate

Criticism

Malthus’s principles used potential and not actual growth figures for population and food production

preventive (e.g. abstinence of sex, time of marriage) and positive (lack of food, disease, war) checks do not affect population growth considerably

during industrial revolution, agricultural production grew at a greater rate than arithmetics, exceeding population growth rates (due to intensification of labour and capital) and extensification of land —> food production has changed drastically since Malthus’s time

Question 5

Theories of population and resources

Ester Boserup’s theory of population — 1965

Answer 5

the greatest resource is knowledge and technology: when a need arises someone will find a solution — this view is widely applicable to modern societies

people have the resources to increase food production — anti-Malthusian view. Population growth enables agricultural development because as the population is stimulated to produce more and innovate. An increase in the intensity of productivity by the adoption of new techniques would be unlikely unless population increased.

The theory is based on the idea that people knew the technique required by a more intensive system, and adopted them when the population grew. If knowledge were not available then the agricultural system would regulate the population size in a given area.

Question 6

Theories of population and resources

Emile Durkheim ’s theory of population — 1893

Answer 6

(only) increased population density leads to greater division of labour, which allows greater productivity to be attained

Question 7

Theories of population and resources

Club of Rome model — 1970

Answer 7

five basic factors that determine and therefore ultimately limit growth on the planet:

1. population (exponential rate)
2. agricultural production (exponential rate)
3. natural resources (slow down industrial growth)
4. industrial production (technological innovation is arithmetic)
5. pollution

because of this exponential characteristic there is only a short period of time within which to take corrective action (we are in that period right now!)

Limits of growth

• physical necessities that support all physiological and industrial activity (e.g. food, raw materials)
• social necessities (e.g. peace, stability, education)

Conclusion of model

There will not be great changes in human values in the future and, therefore, the limits of growth would be reached in the next 100 years. This result would probably be sudden and uncontrollable decline in population and industrial capabilities. Nevertheless, it is possible to alter these growth trends and establish a condition of ecological and economic stability that is sustainable. Much of this is reminiscent of Malthus’s predictions.

Criticism

• It does no distinguish between different parts of the world.
• It ignores the spatial distribution of population and resources, of agricultural and industrial activity, and pollution. People and resources do not always coincide (occur simultaneously).
• The model emphasises exponential growth and not the rate of discovery of new resources or of new users of resources.

Question 8

carrying capacity (population ceiling)

Answer 8

A saturation level where population equals the carrying capacity of the local enviroment. There are three models:

1. The rate of increase may be unchanged until the ceiling is reached, at which point the increase drops to zero. This highly unlikely situation is unsupported by evidence from either human or animal populations.
2. Here the population increase begins to taper off as the carrying capacity is approached, and then to level off when the ceiling is reached. It is claimed that populations that are large in size, with long lives and low fertility rates, conform to this S-curve pattern.
3. The rapid rise in population overshoots the carrying capacity, resulting in a sudden check, e.g. famine, birth control; after this the population recovers and fluctuates, eventually settling down at the carrying capacity. This j-shape curve appears more applicable to small populations with short lives and higher fertility (although it seems most realist to me).

Question 9

Optimum population (and standard of living)

Answer 9

the number of people who, when working with all the available resources, will produce the highest per-capita economic return —> highest standard of living and quality of life.

If the population de- or increases, then he standard of living will fall. This concept is dynamic and changes with time as techniques improve, as population totals and structures change and as new materials are discovered.

Standards of living are a result of the interactions between physical and human resources:

standard of living = (natural resources x technology) / population

Question 10

Overpopulation and Underpopulation

Answer 10

• Overpopulation* occurs when there are too many people, relative to the resources and technology locally available, to maintain an adequate standard of living.
• Bangladesh and Somalia are examples; Somalia with only 12 people/km² is also considered to be overpopulated.
• Underpopulation* occurs when there are far more resources in an area (such as food, energy and minerals) than can be used by the local people. Exportation is therefore common and with growing globalisation an increasingly more meaningless concept (e.g. Canada).

Question 11

oil and LEDCs

Answer 11

Oil weakens the bonds between governments and people by flooding public coffers with money, removing the need for wise spending. And it makes societies vulnerable to civil war.

Oil can create wealth but not jobs, which is what LEDCs need the most. Once wells or refineries are built, they take few men to run them. So the money just pours out of the ground, and into the hands either of foreign oil companies or of greedy and corrupt regimes. Oil has damaged the countries, with its capacity to generate large-scale environmental and social problems. It fills the streams in Ecuador where Chevron, an oil concessionaire, is accused of dumping its wastewater during a long period of drilling. Natural gas flares around the Niger Delta, with local populations such as the Ogoni fighting Shell, the biggest oil company in the region. Is oil a curse or a blessing? It’s both, being a essential building block in our development but now the time is over. How should it be managed?

Question 12

oil production

Answer 12

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), in 2012 over 64% of world oil production came from the top ten countries: Russia, Saudi Arabia, United States, China, Iran, Canada, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela, Kuwait and Iraq. Total oil production was 4,142 Mt, up 3% from 4,011 Mt the previous year. Oil production is marginal or non-existent in a large number of countries.

Question 13

oil consumption

Answer 13

In 2010 the global demand for oil was about 86 million barrels per day. Seven countries — the USA, China, Japan, Germany, Russia, Italy and France — accounted for over 50%.

A country’s oil demand is roughly a function of population and level of development, and also the state of the world’s economy.

Many countries became dependent on it and as oil prices rose, they had to reassess their energy policy.

At present rates of production and consumption, reserves could last for another 40 years.

Question 14

geopolitical impactions of Middle East oil

Answer 14

The Middle East is a critical supplier of oil (e.g. involvement in the Gulf War 1991, invasion of Iraq by US and UK).

Countries that are dependent on the Middle East for oil (partly due to the OPEC) need to:

1. help ensure political stability in the Middle East
2. maintain good political links with the Middle East
3. involve the Middle East in economic cooperation

this acts as an incentive (motivation) to increase energy conservation (be less wasteful) and alternative energy

Question 15

definition of peak oil and energy security

Answer 15

peak oil production — the year in which the world or an individual oil-producing country reaches its highest level of production, with production declining thereafter. It’s hard to tell when peak oil exists because new technologies enable new oil production…

energy security — a country’s ability to secure all its energy needs

Question 16

future of oil production (causation of rising energy insecurity)

Answer 16

Energy insecurity has arisen for a number of reasons, including:

• increased demand, especially by NICs
• reserves are used up
• geopolitical development: countries such as Venezuela, Russia and Iran take advantage of the diminishing resources in the Middle East
• global warming and natural disaster such as hurricanes
• terrorist activity, such as in Nigeria and Iraq

Question 17

consequences of energy insecurity

Answer 17

geopolitical tensions, best lessened through a diversified energy mix (no single supplier)

As wells of “easy accessible oil” dry up, the oil companies have moved into “unconventional’ projects such as “gas-to-liquids” (convening natural gas into petrol and diesel) and, most controversially, the tar sands of Canada. These reserves offer enormous new quantities of all but can only be extracted by mining and refining, which require use up large amounts of energy and water.

Question 18

OPEC (+definition of a cartel)

Answer 18

cartel — an organisation of people who supply the same good and join together to control the overall supply of the product. The members can force up the price of their good either by restricting its supply on the world market or by agreeing on a particular supply price and refusing to sell the good for any less.

The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established in 1960 to counter oil price cuts by American and European oil companies. By agreeing to restrict supply, the members of OPEC were able to force up the world price of oil during the 1970s, thereby increasing revenue to their countries. However, as their resources decline and their costumer countries focus more on alternative energy forms, their power begins to slip.

Question 19

oil’s environmental impact

Answer 19

• oil leaks or spills into the sea, causing pollution such as damage to coastlines and fish stocks
• ocean acidification; dissolving the calcium based corals
• enhanced greenhouse effect; decrease in biodiversity
• dirty oil extraction; like tar sands in Canada

Question 20

petro-aggression

Answer 20

countries that have oil are usually more geopolitically aggressive as many countries are dependent on them (e.g. Russia, Saudi-Arabia)

Question 21

solar power

Answer 21

This energy is clean, renewable and so abundant that the amount of energy received by the earth in 30 minutes is the equivalent to all the power used by humans in one year.

Consumer costs are seeing unprecedented falls and the efficiency of solar panel is increasing as well, shorting the time they need to be active in order to produce the energy that was required to build that panel.

In combination in battery power, the effects of cloud cover, seasons and night time, solar power could also handle energy demands at set circumstances. TESLA ENERGY

Question 22

wind power

Answer 22

It requires strong and reliable winds, which is the reason for the placement at the coast and off-shore locations (both benefit and limitation), very distant from centres of demand, as with hydroelectric power. But it is clean, though noisy, visually distracting, unreliable and possible irritating for birds.

Question 23

tidal power

Answer 23

Large-scale production of tidal energy is limited because:

• high cost of development
• limited number of suitable sites
• environmental damage to estuarine sites
• long period of development
• possible effects on ports and industries upstream

Question 24

nuclear power

Answer 24

Fast-breeder reactors can produce renewable energy, though most nuclear energy is not. However, it is often grouped with renewables because the amount of raw material (plutonium formed from uranium) needed to produce a large amount of energy is very small.

advantages: cheapness, reliability and abundance. The production and running costs of nuclear power are low as long as there are no accidents. Also, there is plenty of uranium - security of supply. Furthermore, uranium can be found in many region including USA, Canada, France, and Africa, so no dependency on the potentially unstable regions such as the Middle East or Russia exists.

disadvantages: when the costs of construction and decommissioning, long-term waste disposal and costs of accidents are factored in, it is actually very expensive.

Although not many major nuclear accidents have occurred (Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, Fukushima), the intensity is severe.

Europe, in the case of any disruption of an energy source, has a diverse mix of suppliers and forms of energy, with the exception of Russian gas.

Question 25

hydroelectric power

Answer 25

It harnesses fast-flowing water with a sufficient head (drop in height). A low-head dam is one with a drop of less than 13 metres and a generating capacity of less than 15,000 kilowatts. The main advantage of low-head dams is their ability to generate power near where it is needed, reducing loss in transmission. In general, dams are typically positioned downstream where discharge is strong.

However, HEP plants have some disadvantages:

• there are costly to build
• only a small number of places have a sufficient head of water (many deciding factors)
• the market is critical because the plant needs to run at full capacity to be economic. In some cases a market is created. For example, aluminium smelters are often located close to HEP plants in order to use up the available energy.

Question 26

case study: The Three Gorges Dam - Yangtze River

Answer 26

The world’s largest HEP dam, at over 2 kilometre long and 100 meters high, is behind a 600 kilometre long lake and build for the increasing demands as Chinese culture shifts from a sustainable existence to a more western-style urban culture. The Yangtze river basin provides 66% of China’s rivers and contains 400 million people. The river drains 1.8 million square kilometres and discharges 700 cubic kilometres of water annually. There are suggestions to build even bigger HEP plants in the Himalayas (e.g. Yarlung Tsangpo).

Advantages

• Generation of up to 18,000 megawatts, supplying economic hubs such as Shanghai.
• Drastically reduces dependency on coal and greenhouse emissions.
• Protection of 10 million people from flooding
• Generation of thousands of jobs.
• Allowance of shipping above the dam, as the water level has been raised over 90 m.

Disadvantages

1.2 million people had to be moved to construct this dam, many to infertile regions.

To reduce the silt load, afforestation is needed but resettlement of people will cause greater pressure on the slopes above the dam.

Up to 530 million tonnes of silt are carried through the Gorge annual: loosing capacity rapidly. The mouth of the river may be starved of silt, and so erosion of the coastline may be the result.

The region is seismically active and landslides are frequent. The weight of the water behind the lake may contribute to seismic instability.

Archaeological treasures were drowning, including the Zhang Fei temple. The Dam will interfere with aquatic life: the Siberian Crane and the White Flag dolphin are threatened with extinction.

It has cost as much as $70 billion.

Question 27

Case Study: Energy Supergrid for Europe

Answer 27

According to the European Commission’s Institute for Energy, just 0.3% of light falling on the Sahara and the Middle East deserts would be enough to meet all of Europe’s energy needs because, inter alia, photovoltaic panels are significantly more effective (up to three times) due to more intense insolation. Southern Mediterranean countries including Portugal and Spain have already invested heavily in solar energy, and Algeria has begun work on a vast combined solar and natural gas plant and wants to export 6,000 megawatts to Europe by 2020.

Scientists admit it will take many years and huge investment, but envisage that by 2050 it could produce 100 gigawatts, with an investment of around €450 billion. The energy would be transmitted along high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission lines, the most efficient way to move electricity over long distances

Question 28

reuse vs. recycling

Answer 28

Recycling saves scarce materials and reduces pollution. Reuse it usually more energy- and resources efficient than recycling.

Question 29

pros and cons of landfills

Answer 29

Landfills may be cheap but unhealthy as much of the waste does not decompose easily.

Landfills increase as the rising standard of living allows for more consumerism.

Question 30

(e)-waste imports in China

Answer 30

Computer recycling is very damaging to both the environment and workers carrying it out. Millions of tonnes of waste are imported to China, usually the same containers that export goods, import waste back to China. This is because it is cheaper, despite the distance, due to a great number of low-wage workers. The same problem is occurring in Africa, especially concerning landfills.

Question 31

International initiatives to protect climate

Answer 31

Many conventions decide on binding or voluntary emission cuts, as it was the case with the Kyoto agreement. Countries are able to keep the targets without cutting domestic emissions by:

• plant forests to absorb carbon or change agricultural practices, e.g. keeping fewer cattle
• install clean technology in other countries and claim carbon credits
• buy carbon credits from countries such as Russia where traditional heavy industries have decline and the national carbon limits are underused

However, greenhouse emission cuts are not enough to hindern the global temperature from raising. Furthermore, the talks are dependent on the main leaders such as China, USA and India, as they are the main emitters. This can be seen at the Kyoto agreement (1997), Copenhagen (2009) or Paris agreement (2016).

It is unfair to limit developing countries with emission targets as the developed countries such as the USA had a significantly longer time to use the dirty and cheap energy such as oil and coal. Therefore, the developed countries should donate money to developing countries so they can build renewable energy resources and still continue with their economic growth, while the world is reducing climate change.