Leisure, Sport, Tourism Flashcards
definitions:
leisure, recreation, tourism, ecotourism
leisure — any freely chosen activity or experiences that takes place in none-work time
recreation — a leisure-time activity undertaken voluntarily and for enjoyment
tourism — travel away from home for at least one night for the purpose of leisure
ecotourism — minimal impact; low-density; directed towards exotic natural environments, local communities, intended to support conservation efforts and observe wildlife.
Ecotourism, in theory, should sustain the resources on which tourism depends, but once the carrying capacity of an area is exceeded, environmental degradation is almost inevitable.
factors influencing global tourism
all of them are increasing
DEMAND
growing middle class; increased disposable incomes; higher levels of education (curiosity); increased urbanisation makes people want to escape to nature more often
ACCESSIBILITY
internet and credit cards made research and booking easier; cheaper, faster and safer transportation (jets and high speed trains)
SUPPLY
politcal stability at destination; poverty decreasing
international tourism figures and facts
Global growth predicted to be 130% increase by 2020
Europe receives the largest share, but Asia-Pacific is growing the fastest
Over billion people travel each year as tourists overseas
factors influencing tourism choices (pimary and secondary, possible deterrents and attractions)
Primary tourist/recreational resources
- Pre-existing attractions for tourism including climate, scenery, wildlife, cultural/heritage sites, and people (Example: Ibiza)
Secondary tourist/recreational resources
- Accommodation, catering, entertainment, shopping (Example: Dubai)
Deterrents
- Hazards, Political unrest, disease, exchange rate and value for money (Example: North Korea)
Attractions
- Climate, landscape, culture, sport (Example: Grand Canyon)
hosting a major sport event (pros and cons)
Advantages:
- Prestige and National unity
- Economic spin-offs (multiplier effect, trickle down) (e.g. building stadiums)
- Improved facilities
- National unity
- Profit
Disadvantages:
- Possible financial loss
- Terrorism, increased security risks (e.g. Munich 1972)
- Overcrowding: puts a strain on hotels, water, etc.
- Loss of esteem
case studies: major sport event
Beijing Olympics (2008)
The choice of China as the host country was criticised by some politicians and NGOs, due to China’s human rights record.
Some saw the Beijing games as an opportunity for the authorities to advance the repression of minority groups and political activists.
China had developed from a Soviet model of development (centralisation and heavy industry) to a Maoist model (decentralisation and the communes), to, finally, a Dentist model of market socialism (with Chinese characteristics).
Pros
- Better infrastructure, public transport (adding 80 stations, terminals, runways) and refurbished and new buildings (new paint)
- Better environment in terms of air quality (banned vehicles, and regulated car use), newly introduced renewable energy sources, waste recycling, closing down many harmful factories and putting stricter laws into place, restricting car usage, opening new green spaces
- The event had no detrimental economic effect on the city and around 43$ billion investment was worth it, in my eyes and many of the population (56% in favour) and was a success. Multiplier effect. Also, huge profit compared to other Olympics (224$ million, high rate of return)
- Game prestige, great marketing for China, improved the political image
- The Olympic Games created a spotlight on many concerns of China, including: allegations that China violated its agreement to allow open media access, alleged human rights violations, violent conflicts with Tibetans, provoking a public discussion, which is good for finding solutions
Cons
- The event may have brought obesity to China, as many high-calorie foods have been introduced in advertisement and an unhealthy lifestyle portrait by sponsors (e.g. Coca Cola)
- Increased risk of disease, lock of immunisation, fear of bird flue
- Increased air pollution outside of Beijing
- Leakage
London Olympics (2012)
The Lower Lea Valley is one of the most deprived communities in Britain. Unemployment is hight, incomes low and public health poor. This run-down environment with an industrial history suffers from a lack of infrastructure. Most of the existing industry provides only low-density employment. Illegal dumping has been a major problem in the area. The area is one of the most ethnically diverse in the UK because of cheap living (for many people the starting point).
It was hoped that the Olympic Games will transform the Lower Lea Valley, with high level of investment (more than 6 billion pounds), and introduce higher living standards to this disadvantaged area. Plans already existed to refurbish this place and the Olympic Games just speeded up this process immensely.
New land bridges were built across rivers, roads and railways to provide high level of access. New car parks, more than 13 km of overhead powerless moved to the underground (because better looks and safety), harmful materials are cleaned (including soil processing), and new fences placed.
Land remediation (or environmental remediation) deals with the removal of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment, or surface water. This would mean that once requested by the government or a land remediation authority, immediate action should be taken as this can impact negatively on human health and the environment.
- Relocation of existing businesses by the London Development Agency (LDA) of business at the Olympic site.
- Furthermore, Stratford City received high levels of development (involving 4,850 homes, 120 shops, 3 department stores, 4 large hotels and very large area of office space).
- Property prices have risen everywhere, especially in Newham (before one of the cheapest areas in London) where the prices are now above average. Also, existing home owners could also benefit by letting their homes for a premium rent during the Games. Which is has both positive and negative effects, since some people get richer (the owners) and more high quality homes exist, but the poorer people have to find different cheap housings now.
Pros
- Providing 9,000 new homes in the Olympic Park alone, with schools and health and community facilities alongside. Half of the new homes will go to housing associations.
- Gleaning up the urban wasteland that is currently found in ninth of the Lower Lea Valley and providing the largess new London park since the Victorian era.
- Significantly improving transportation and other elements of infrastructure (50 new train stations.
- Permanently providing state-of-the-art facilities in the area for a wide range of sports.
- Speeding up the regeneration of the Lower Lea Valley and the Thames Gateway. It is estimated that 12,000 permanent jobs mill be created in the area of the Olympic Park alone.
- It is hoped that the 150,000 m2 media and broadcasting centre will become a new focus for media industries.
- Providing a much-needed boost for the tourist industry with half a million visitors expected at the time of the Games.
- Improving the image of both East London and the country as a whole (game prestige).
Cons
- The Olympic precinct will be cleared of every building, business and tree.
- 450 housing association flats and Kingsway International Christian Centre (Britain’s largest church) will be demolished.
- A new site has to be load for travellers presently living along Waterden Road.
- Over 900 businesses will have to be relocated. A significant number of jobs are likely to be lost in this process.
- Local residents will be adversely affected by the noise, dust and visual pollution of years of construction and associated heavy vehicle movement.
- London council tax payers will bear the brunt of the cow which has already greedy increased (Figure 6).
- Environmentalists are concerned about the loss of important wildlife habitats along the Lower Lea Valley.
- 140 leisure pitches for local people will be demolished.
Butler’s Model
how tourist areas evolve
- Exploration (discovery)
- Involvement
- Development
- Consolidation (tourism becomes an important industry)
- Stagnation (There is increased local opposition to tourism and an awareness of the problems it creates. Fewer new tourists arrive)
- Decline?
case study: butler’s model and the stages of tourism evolving
Spain, Costa del Sol
Spain illustrates many of the problems that resort areas encounter as they reach capacity, and the tendency for tourist places to drift downmarket, setting in motion a downward spiral.
The key factors that led to the rise of mass tourism to Spain include: its attractive climate, long coastline, distinctive Spanish culture, its accessibility to countries in northwest Europe, and the competitive price of package holidays, especially for the under 30s and over 60s age groups.
Over 70% of tourists are concentrated into just six regions, which are all in the coastal areas and the Mediterranean islands. The rapid growth of tourism has led to many unforeseen developments.
From small fishing villages and some touristst to a centre for package tours, and rapid, uncontrolled developments led to the area being swamped by characterless buildings, a lack of open space, limited car parking and inaccessible sea frontage. Overcommercialization, crowding of facilities such as bars, beaches and streets, and pollution of the sea and beach also occurred.
Linear development on the Costa del Sol
From the 1960s, before underdeveloped, rapid and unchecked expansion created a long linear development along the coast. However, as tourism increased, tourist developments diffused from larger centres to secondary centres, and there was also infilling between the centres. This infilling included campsites, golf courses and urbonizaciones, villa developments that include second or retirement homes belonging to both Spanish and foreign owners, as well as houses and apartments for rent by tourists.
In 2009, a global recession hit the tourism industry as people had less disposable money.
Hawkins Model:
what factors can limit the carry capacity of an area
The model examines the factors that affect the demand for tourism in an area, and the forces that may limit the carrying capacity.
positive attitudes between tourists and locals can become negative as the threshold of the carrying capacity is reached
Local residents’ experiences:
- invasion of privacy
- involvement in tourism
- benefits from tourism
- tourists’ sensitivity and behaviour.
Visitor Experience
- volume of people
- visitor behaviour
- levels of service
- local hospitality
- visitors’ expectations
Influecing factors:
Ecological factors:
- climate
- vegetation
- animal life
- landscape
Political factors:
- legislation
- administrative capability
- individual priorities, goals and aspirations
Physical factors:
- accommodation
- water supply
- sewage systems
- transportation and access
- visual attractiveness
Economic factors:
- personal income
- living costs
- labour costs
- resort technology
- resort investment
reasons behind the growth of ecotourism
Awareness of the cultural, economic and environmental costs of mass tourism, with its high consumption and disregard for local communities, has been a major imputes to the growth. Accounts for 5% of the global tourism market. Problem of transport: often ecotourism is in far off locations and long-haul flights have environmental impacts. Noise pollution, especially take-off and landing. Cruise level emissions affect greenhouse gases. Create contrails and increase cirrus cloudiness.
Improved eduction and awareness through the media make people more confident about exotic locations and mixing with other tourists in a multicultural group.
Example: Ecotourism in Belize (North America) or Costa Rica
case studies: ecotourism
successful: Costa Rica - Cloud Forest
Attracts about 1 million visitors each year. Well-organised government promotions and a reputation as the safest country in Central America attract large numbers of North American and European visitors. Costa Rica’s tourism is unusual because in a large part it relates to special interest groups (e.g. bird watchers).
- extremely high biodiversity due to the wide range of climate, spectacular scenery
- Monteverde developed differently than the rest of the country because it particularly included locals in their development
- the aim of Monteverde was always to conserve, since the beginning of tourism!
- the tourists now seek a balance between entertainment, adventure and knowledge
- Monteverde now accounts for about 18% of Costa Rica’s total tourist revenue
- Most of the business are small scale and very local, such that 70% of the hotels have less than 20 rooms. These small business are easy to start, higher paid than agriculture, safe, good working conditions and a better social status. Also, many small business distribute wealth more evenly.
- unlike many rural areas in developing countries, Monteverde is not experiencing emigration but quiet the opposite, due to the tourism developments increasing employment opportunities attracting many young people. However, this places great strain on existing infrastructure.
- The price of land has soared because of that demand.
- Also, the atmosphere has changed. The Quakers (christian sect) sought a peaceful life, free from the stresses and pressures of modern materialism in a capitalist country: traditionally, villagers in Central America work between 6 a.m. and 3p.m., Monday to Friday. But tourism is a 24 hour, 365 day industry. Thus cultural changes and adjustments need to be made to a new way of life.
- visitor impact is keep to a minimum, due to restricted access and local tour guides
- people are more aware of the value of their natural resources (due to improved formal and informal education), because the shift from agriculture to tourism! The private sector is now keen to conserve and restore the natural environment (since they realised it’s more profitable)
- all this works so prosperously and harmonically because people work together with a common good, namely the cloud forest.
not successful: Belize
Belize is still not equipped to cope with the high levels of consumption and waste left by tourism. In order to generate funding to improve local infrastructures, the government has allowed much private and unregulated development to occur along the coastline and a massive increase in cruise ships. In one week a typical large miser with 5,000 passengers might disgorge up to 800,000 litres of raw sewage, 40 million litres of effluent (from washing machines, basins, showers), 400 litres of hazardous waste Including cleaning fluids and acids, and 10 tonnes of semi-decomposed solid food waste. The unregulated dumping of waste along the coastline can be devastating to ecosystems and repulsive to tourists. The future of ecotourism is seriously threatened by the cruise ships.
Cruise tourism fails also to benefit local people because these visitors spend less than half of those on a stopover. Passengers do most of their spending on board ship and that money is repatriated as leakage. Immanent in tourism has also disadvantaged local people where properly development is concerned. The extensive development of the coastline has been financed and managed by foreigners, mostly Americans, and the escalating price of land excludes local people from the market.
- Belize is attractive because barrier reef, numbers caves, Mayan civilisation, political stability, sub-tropical climate, close proximity to the cities of southern USA, an alternative to over-developed resort (in Mexico).
- After agricultural exports, tourism is the second most important source of income.
- 1983, Belize government limited tourism to reduce impact, but infrastructure still wasn’t able to deal with the tourists effectively.
- ¼ of the country has been designated to a nature reserve in some form, in addition to numerous private initiatives, successfully preserving wildlife.
- However, ecotourism doesn’t work and 90% of recent developments are foreign-owned and the shift from small to large business has been occurring: LEAKAGE!
- Environmental degradation happens, see paragraphs above… including logging and refugees arrival.
tourism as a development strategy
Tourism can be regarded as export
It provides jobs, improved infrastructure and also provides opportunities to acquire new skills, like in languages, catering and entertainment.
Tourism adds diversity to the local market and helps stabilise economy as long as it is not dependent on one source
Tourism can create a multiplier effect (profit circulation within the economy of the host country), provided leakage doesn’t drain the economy. Due to this initial government investment, it helps wealth to distribute.
Tourism increases the awareness of that region, making tourist more likely to donate aid and support local development projects.
Exchange of new ideas and world views are more likely to occur, increasing tolerance and provoking thought.
tourism in small island developing states
- Most are large-scale, high-density resorts
- Relatively short visitor stays
- Recently a shift towards more authentic experiences and remote islands
Benefits
- Primary tourist resources abundant (beach, coral, etc)
- Tourism is not restricted by quotas or tariffs
- Tourism provides both direct and indirect job opportunities
Risks
- Dependency on one industry
- Mass tourism causes environmental problems
case study: tourism in small island developing states
The Maldives
The Maldives are a successful example of using tourism as a development strategy and seeing the multiplier effect in action. However, primary product dependent, tourism, made the region very vulnerable to external shocks, such as sea-level rise and tsunamis, and also sensitive to internal limitations, such as the depletion of resources (water) and pollution. The government reacts with cleaning up the environment (recycling, solar power, desalination plants, etc.) and diversifying the economy. Tourism is 28% of the GDP. Over 60% comes from foreign receipts — tourism leakage.
managing exceeding carry capacity
- Denying access to the city by unauthorised tour coaches via the main coach terminal
- Charging for entrance to the city
- Spatial zoning (areas of land that have different suitabilities or capacities for tourists)
