Urban Environments Flashcards
Urbanisation
= the increasing proportion of people living in urban areas.
Trends in urbanisation over the last 50 years in LICs / HICs:
• Emerging and developed economies have highest levels of urbanisation overall (90% of urbanisation taking place here).
• Lowest levels of urbanisation in Africa and SE Asia. However, rate of growth is now highest in developing countries (sometimes called hyper-urbanisation).
• Urban population is increasing proportionally faster than the world’s population (world population doubled from 1950 to 2000, but urban population trebled).
• In 2008 for the first time in history over 50% of the world’s population lived in urban areas.
• It reached 54% in 2014 and is expected to reach 66% by 2050 and 75% by 2100.
Suburbanisation
urban settlements grow out towards the suburbs.
Suburbanisation is caused by:
• Better transport links between suburbs and CBD
• CBD push factors e.g. congestion, overcrowding, pollution.
• Suburban pull factors e.g. less pollution, greener, more space etc.
Dormitory settlement
areas on the RUF where residents mainly sleep and then commute to the CBD for work i.e. they are used as dormitories and are very quiet during the working day.
Counter-urbanisation
people ‘leap frog’ the RUF and move out to rural areas. This encourages decentralisation of activities away from the CBD.
Urban regeneration: AKA gentrification or urban reimaging or rebranding
Central urban areas that were decentralised and went into decline can be redeveloped e.g. East London / Stratford and Olympic Park area. Often leads to locals who remained there being priced out of the area due to house prices rising, and the emergence of ‘hipster shops’ like avocado toast cafes, and no local convenience stores on the high street. Can revitalise the area and bring more £ though
Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation:
• Push and pull factors e.g. better jobs, better QOL, better access to services etc.
• Rate of population growth:
• High rates of rural-urban migration
• High rates of natural increase (NI = BR - DR)
• Rate of economic development
• All of the above are linked together in a multiplier effect, as once momentum is achieved this will continue happening.
• Economies of scale
Economies of scale
(putting as much as possible into one megacity, rather than lots of smaller cities) also create advantages.
Rural dilution
experienced in the countryside as urban areas spread.
Millionaire city
> 1 million people
Megacity
10 million people (top of settlement hierarchy triangle diagram. Supports high order goods and services. Has a large sphere of influence)
Metacity
> 20 million people
Global/ world city
global significance e.g. financially, such as London, New York, Tokyo etc.
Factors affecting the emergence of megacities:
Urban agglomerations due to people and economic activities concentrate at favourable locations e.g.
• River crossing points
• Estuary mouths
• Near a mineral resource such as oil, coal, iron etc.
• Near coast for trade potential etc.
Megacities become powerful cores, with peripheral areas.
Problems associated with rapid urbanisation: congestion, transport, employment, crime, environmental issues. (Housing)
Housing:
• demand > supply.
• Many expensive buildings unsuitable for those who have migrated and need low cost housing, so residents end up in slums (in LICs).
• 3 billion could end up in urban slums by 2050.
• 331 million new low cost homes will be needed in cities by 2025.
• Because of poor transport links (or not enough disposable income to pay for transport), the most sought after housing is close to the city centre (with jobs, shops etc.)
Problems associated with rapid urbanisation: congestion, transport, employment, crime, environmental issues (Access to water and electricity)
Access to H2O and electricity:
• demand > supply.
• In LICs they may rely on fuelwood. (Not very efficient and releases pollution into atmosphere for people to breath)
• Streams can be polluted by sewerage.
• In 2015 there were 667 million urban residents without at least basic sanitation provision.
Problems associated with rapid urbanisation: congestion, transport, employment, crime, environmental issues (Congestion and Transport)
Congestion and transport:
• Also lags behind demand.
• Systems overcrowded. Smog and air pollution result.
• Also lots of noise and visual pollution in cities. In 2018 only 3% of cities met WHO air quality guidelines.
Problems associated with rapid urbanisation: congestion, transport, employment, crime, environmental issues (Employment)
Employment:
Many unable to find work once migrated to cities, so end up in the informal sector.
High crime rates too as people are forced into it due to not making enough money
Problems associated with rapid urbanisation: congestion, transport, employment, crime, environmental issues (Cycle of poverty/ deprivation)
Children born into poor or impoverished families
Hunger and malnutrition Leads to stunted development and poor health
Becomes severely disadvantaged in education and skills
Unable to find employment or financial sustainability
Falls back into poverty and unable to escape the vicious cycle
Urban processes timeline
- Agglomeration
- Suburbanisation
- Commuting of people into work
- Counter-urbanisation
- Urban regeneration
- Urbanisation of suburbs
Factors affecting urban land use patterns: locational needs, accessibility, land values. (Land values)
Land value:
● Urban land market (sites sold to the highest
bidder). Retail normally makes the best use
of land financially.
● Bid rent theory = refers to how the price and
demand for real estate change as the distance from the central business district (CBD) increases.
● PLVI (peak land value intersection) = land value highest in CBD, and declines outwards (with SLVIs around ring roads and major intersections where good transport links enhance land value).
Factors affecting urban land use patterns: locational needs, accessibility, land values (locational needs)
Certain businesses may accrete together due to making best use of similar infrastructure needed.
Land use models:
● Burgess concentric model (circular: core, inner-city ring, suburban ring, urban fringe)
● Hoyt sector model
● Waugh’s Latin American (LIC) model (circular: CBD, high cost housing(spans out across rings from CBD to favelas), industry (also spans out across all rings showing how it is from outskirts to centre), Periferia (poorer-housing), Favelas(informal settlements)
types of land use.
Residential, commercial, industrial, manufacturing, greenfield, brownfield
Residential areas land uses are affected by:
wealth, occupation and ethnicity.
Urban challenges in a named developed country (London, UK): food
Food:
● 48% of food consumed in the UK is imported.
● Security issues regarding supply post Brexit as
food will come at an additional cost to the consumer due to border checks etc. and increased time to reach the consumer.
● Could further enhance food insecurity due to wealth disparities / deprivation.
● 8 million people in the UK are at risk of food insecurity.
Urban challenges in a named developed country (London, UK): transport and pollution
High NO2 levels due to congestion and idling cars, leads to health issues in people who live in congested areas, this can cause increased stress on healthcare
Emissions produced also contribute to climate change
Urban challenges in a named developed country (London, UK): Energy
Energy:
● London will need 20% more energy by 2050.
● The increased demand cannot necessarily be
matched, leading to energy security issues.
● According to the London Assembly, more than
1 in 10 households are designated as fuel poor - they can’t afford to keep their homes warm due to a combination of low incomes and high energy costs. This lack of affordable energy can put residents at risk of fuel poverty.
Urban challenges in a named developed country (London, UK): Waste
Waste:
● London’s ecological footprint (demand for
natural resources and ability to absorb waste) exceeds its biocapacity (supply). Meaning ecological debtor/ deficit.
● Footprint = 48,868,000 GHa
● Biocapacity = 1,210,000 GHa
● Only 52% of London’s waste is currently
recycled.
Urban challenges in a named developed country (London, UK): Segregation
Segregation:
● By wealth, occupation, ethnicity, stage in family
life cycle. Links to IMD.
● 16% of Londoners are in the poorest tenth
nationally, whilst 17% are in the richest tenth of
people in the country.
● Ethnic segregation (voluntary or forced) could
lead to gated communities. Often happens once migration has occurred as people want to live near to those with the same language, friends, shops selling food from their culture etc.
● Studentification - Neighbourhoods become
Urban challenges in a named developing or emerging country (Mumbai, India): Squatter Settlements
Squatter settlements -
● Dharavi slum is in Mumbai.
● 1 million residents (500,000 per km2
population density).
● Basic services e.g. sanitation not provided.
● People construct things themselves, leading to
a haphazard approach.
Urban challenges in a named developing or emerging country (Mumbai, India): Informal economy
Informal economy -
● Every day the city produces > 10,000 tons
solid waste.
● Ragpickers and those working in the recycling
industry and informal economy work in incredibly hazardous conditions. Wounds quickly become infected due to contact with biohazardous substances.
● Rag pickers and recyclers mainly come from the lower rungs of India’s caste system and struggle to gain formal recognition from the authorities, also can be damaging for government as they get much less income due to informal economy being untaxed, having a low QOL as a result.
Urban challenges in a named developing or emerging country (Mumbai, India): Pollution
Pollution -
● Pollution is a major problem due to sewage
disposal in streams as >1000 people will share
one toilet/ use hanging toilets over rivers.
● Small scale industries also create air pollution
via release of toxic fumes.
Development of the RUF: housing estates, retail (e.g. Bluewater), business and science parks (e.g. Southampton/ Exeter University Science Parks),
All often locate in the rural-urban fringe as the land is cheaper, there is room for expansion and they are closer to transport links to allow export and import of goods.
Greenfield site:
An area of agricultural or forest land, or some other undeveloped site which is usually protected from development, but is increasingly being earmarked for commercial development or industrial projects.
Brownfield site:
Commercial or industrial site, now abandoned. Often environmental contamination that would have to be dealt with prior to redeveloping the site.
greenfield vs brownfield: advantages
Greenfield
Relatively cheap and rate of house building is faster
Layout is not hampered by previous development so can easily be made efficient and pleasant, with the correct facilities etc.
Healthier environment
Proximity of countryside for leisure and recreation
Brownfield
Reduces the loss of countryside and land that can be put to agricultural or recreational use
Helps to revive old and disused urban areas
Services already in place
Located near to main areas of employment
greenfield vs brownfield: disadvantages
Greenfield
Valuable farmland, recreational space and attractive scenery lost
Development causes noise and light pollution to surrounding countryside
Wildlife and their habitats lost
Encourages further suburban sprawl
Brownfield
Often more expensive because old buildings have to be cleared and land unpolluted
Often surrounded by rundown areas so less appealing to more wealthy residents
Higher levels of pollution = less healthy
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (London, UK): waste disposal
Waste:
● Encourage circular city
model, rather than a linear one. Follow circular economy principles. (Recycling of organic and inorganic materials, conservation / use of renewable energy)
● Waste hierarchy - Achieve zero municipal waste direct to landfill by 2025. Reduce the amount of household waste produced from 970kg per household in 2009/10 to 790kg per household by 2031. This is equivalent to a 20 per cent reduction per household.
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (London, UK): transport
Transport:
● Boris/ Santander bikes (from as little as £2 to hire for
24 hours). >19,000 docking points across London.
● Cycle super highways and bike sheds aimed to give
cyclists faster, safer and more direct routes,
encouraging more people to cycle to work, reduces emissions
● Crossrail (the Elizabeth line) - west to east line through London and
surrounding areas. £15 billion project. Will add 105 more capacity to the rail network in central London. Regeneration along its route creating jobs. Projected to add $42 billion of GDP to the UK economy.
● Hydrogen cell buses – help reduce air pollution. New Low Emission Bus Zones (2017).
● Congestion charge/ ULEZ - £15 a day to enter central London. Profit
invested into London’s transport system (£80 million over 5 years). 44% reduction in roadside N0x in central London over last 4 years with 50000 fewer polluting vehicles being driven in the Congestion Charge area.
● London’s T-charge: T for toxicity (2017). Drivers of older, more polluting petrol and diesel cars have to pay a T-charge of £10 along with the congestion charge.
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (London, UK): energy
Energy:
● Footfall harvesting ( a way to capture the lost energy of infinite footsteps and convert that into useful electricity, i.e making energy from your steps on footpaths)
● Biofuels: Some London taxi’s run on restaurant oil
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (London, UK): food
● Vertical farming and urban gardening will increase sustainability of food
supply for cities.
● Food banks - 2000 across the UK. 1.6 million parcels given out / year.
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (Mumbai, India): Top Down
Top down - Vision Mumbai (housing - government led).
● Relocates slum dwellers to purpose built blocks (though often many kms
outside of the city (cheaper land) leading to problems with seeing family
and friends in the city).
● Residents have their own toilets, kitchens etc. inside their homes, though
these are often still cramped spaces shared with other families.
The complexes have no shared communal spaces like terraces, or spaces for the children to play, which they did have in the slums.
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (Mumbai, India): Bottom up
Bottom up - SPARC NGO (sanitation and housing - community led) aka grass roots development.
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (Mumbai, India): waste disposal
Dharavi informal recycling industry recycles around 80% of Mumbai’s waste. Banned plastic bag usage. Mangroves aid health and wellbeing via being a green space. Also filter pollution (both air and water).
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (Mumbai, India): transport
Transport:
New underground metro transport link part of ‘Mumbai urban transport project’ (MUTP). $344 million investment from 2010-2016 to improve train network.
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (Mumbai, India): Healthcare
SMILE Foundation NGO ‘smile on wheels’ project since 2013 with mobile health clinics.
Role of different groups of people (planners, politicians, property developers and industrialists) in managing the social, economic and environmental challenges in the chosen urban area (Mumbai, India):
● Government
● NGOs e.g. SPARC, Smile on Wheels etc.
● Property developers
● Local people in Mumbai
● People living in Dharavi
● Tourists
Role of different groups of people (planners, politicians, property developers and industrialists) in managing the social, economic and environmental challenges in the chosen urban area (London, UK):
● Government
● Investors
● Local people
● Tourists
● Civil Society Organisations e.g. London National Park City movement.
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (London, UK): segregation
Segregation:
● Pepperpot housing (an urban planning strategy in which poorer and more affluent residents live in a mixed community through the ‘sprinkling’ of social housing amongst privately-owned housing, could also work with different ethnicities)
The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the QOL for the chosen urban environment (London, UK): QOL and pollution
London became the world’s first National Park City:
● 2019. Aim is to improve life in London by making the city greener, healthier
and wilder. More sustainable, providing a better quality of life for residents.
