Urban Environments Flashcards
Urbanisation
When the percentage of the population living in urban areas in a country increases.
Urban growth
When the overall number of people living in urban areas increases.
Urban expansion (urban sprawl)
When the size of one town or city increases.
Push factors
Reasons for people leaving an area. e.g food shortages, land shortages, poor infrastructure, crime, drought, natural hazards,
Pull factors
Reasons for people going to an area. e.g employment, better education and infrastructure, less crime.
Rural to urban migration
People moving from a rural area to an urban area.
Flow chart for the causes of urban growth
1) Young people migrate to cities
2) Big cities tend to have better universities.
3) Jobs for uni graduates tend to pay more
4) Young people stay living in the city after uni in their 20s
5) People in their 20s are at a fertile age and have children
6) So the birth rate in cities is higher than rural areas.
Effects of urban sprawl
-Increased traffic and pollution
-Decreased biodiversity
-Loss of farmland
-Increased flood risk
-Decline in the CBD
Millionaire City
A city with at least one million people
Mega city
A city with at least 10 million people
Meta city
A city with 20 million people
Conurbation
A large settlement when nearby towns or cities spread out and merge together
World city
A city which has a great influence on a global scale because a financial status. The main 3 are New York, London, and Tokyo.
What makes a city a world city?
Political hub
Landmarks
Economic/ business hub
Technology
Education
5 Levels of world cities
Alpha ++ e.g London
Alpha + e.g Dubai
Alpha and Alpha - e.g Madrid
Beta e.g Cairo
Gamma e.g Bristol
Why is London a world city?
- Capital city
- Leading financial centre
- Largest airport in the world
- Diverse population (over 300 languages spoken)
- Landmarks
Suburbanisation
When people move to the edges of a city
Examples of London Suburbs
Twickenham
Wimbledon
Ealing
Positives of suburbanisation
-Increase opportunity to create parks and open spaces
-More spacious housing
-Less need for high density housing
-Council gets more tax
-Increase in offices, shops and business parks at the edge of town
-Increase in golf clubs and gyms
-People can work from home and not need to live in city centre.
Negatives of Suburbanisation
-Decline of inner city shops and businesses
-The city increases in size and builds on greenfield land
-Increases commuting by car
-Greater divide cultures and lower income groups in the community
-Buildings in the inner city are left vacant
-The areas can look similar and lack diversity.
Counter-Urbanisation
When people move from a large town or city to a small town or village.
Reasons for counter urbanisation
- Safer environment for children - less crime / traffic
- Cleaner air due to less traffic p
- Less crowded schools meaning better education
- More Leisure activities, walking etc
- More space allowing for bigger and cheaper housing
Modifications in counter urbanised village
When houses have extensions or improvements
Accretions in counter urbanised villages
The areas of a village that have grown gradually over time
Adjustments in counter urbanised villages
Newer parts of the village added to the original core
Isolates in counter urbanised village
Individual housing apart from the main village
Ribbon developments in counter urbanised villages
A line of housing, extending along a main road out of a village, with fields on the land behind it
In-fills in counter urbanised villages
When there is a gap between houses. Usually on a small park or big garden. The Land can fit 1 or 2 houses on it.
Counter urbanisation in St. Ives, Cambridgeshire. (Case study)
-Rising cost of properties
-More commuters on higher incomes
-Locals work on lower wages. E.g on farms
-Increased demand for luxury apartments
-More retirement homes
-More building in green field land.
Urban resurgence
The regeneration of an urban area. Especially cities in UK cities where often they had declined in the 1970s and 80s.
De-industrialisation
The decline in the proportion of jobs in manufacturing and factory work in an area.
Features of modern CBDs
Pedestrianised streets
Restoration of historic CBD buildings
Indoor shopping malls
Weekly street markets / food festivals
More street lighting
More bins
Increase public transport
CCTV
Trees and / or flowers on high street
More street furniture (benches, outside tables etc)
Manufacturing
Making something on a large scale using machinery
Deindustrialisation
The decrease of a country’s manufacturing (mostly in HiCs)
Automation
The increased use of robotics in factories
Globalisation
The links that business and people have to other countries. e.g Products made in China
Effects of Deindustrialisation
- Factories and buildings become derelict, leading also to vandalism
- Loss of jobs, so decreased local economy
- Less taxes payed to government by businesses
- Shops closing as people have less money to spend
- More vandalism in an area makes it less attractive to potential housebuyers or investors.
- Can also lead to a negative multiplier effect
Decentralisation
The relocation of shops, offices, etc away from the CBD to retail parks or business parks at the edges.
Service economy
The increased % of people working in ‘service’ or ‘tertiary’ jobs such as offices, shops, laboratories etc..
Pull factors of decentralisation for businesses
- Cheaper land
- More space
- Less traffic - more foot traffic
- More green space
- Less densely packed
- Safer environment
- Nearer to customers
Reasons for service economy
- Big companies demand more IT staff, marketing, website design etc..
- Old factories being bought by service companies to be renovated
- More people taking ‘STEM’ subjects at school meaning more people are qualified for service jobs
- Increased number of airports and roads in HIC cities will help service businesses because access to goods, services and customers is easier.
Characteristics of a post modern western city
- No traditional CBD
-Diverse population - Architecture style is a mix of old and modern
- Jobs are mostly service jobs
Economic inequality
The difference in the levels of living students between different groups in a society (gap between rich and poor)
Social segregation
When a group of people ( such as immigrants ) choose to live with people similar to them
Cultural diversity
A variety of cultural groups within a place
Why do migrants groups tend to live in certain areas
- Language
- Religious buildings / places of worship
- Familiar food / culture
- Cheaper housing
- Jobs available that don’t require language
- Politicians with similar back grounds
- Family / friends in that area
- Safety away from racism
Post Modern Western city
- No traditional CBD
- Diverse population
- Architecture styles mix of old and modern
- Jobs are mostly service jobs
- Example: Las Vegas, USA
Fortress development
- Defensible spaces that create boundaries and often lead to an increase polarisation of a society.
+ Little Traffic
+ Can lead to urban regeneration
+ Privacy - Expensive
- Located near poor areas which can lead to higher crime rates
- Creates paranoia of life outside the gates
- Denies poor people access to green spaces
Cultural / heritage quarter
- Areas Of cultural or historic significance / attraction
- Example : Cardiff bay or Soho
+ Stimulates new commercial, tourist and leisure developments
+ Regenerates run down areas
+ Creates jobs ans houses
+ Leads to improved services
Edge city
- Areas at the edge of city with offices, shops, etc…
- Example: Bunkers hill east of Lincoln
+ Cheaper land
+ Faster internet and higher quality of life for employees (good for TNCs)
+ lots of leisure available
- Built of green field land
- No local indépendant shops
- Relies on cars
Gentrified areas
A form of inner city regeneration
Usually includes the movement of affluent usually young, middle class people into traditionally run down areas
Example: Oxford
- Can make the established working class feel alienated
- Houses become more expensive
+ Local services upgraded
+ Regenerates area
Urban form
The physical characteristics of a town or city. Includes things such as a city’s shape, size, population density, or layout. The urban form of a city can change over time
Urban decline
The deterioration of the inner city often caused by lack of investment. It leads to a drop in population and a rise in unemployment
Deprivation
When a persons quality of life is below the minimum for Britain today (60% of the median income)
Factors that affect quality of life
- Health (diet, disease, access to healthcare etc)
- Environment (litter, pollution)
- Education
- Employment (income)
- Crime
- Quality if housing
- Shops / services
Patterns of deprivation in the UK
- More deprived in the North on average, mostly in big cities.
- The coast also has significant levels of deprivation in some areas
- The least deprived areas are in Southern - central areas, for example, Bristol
Urban regeneration
The improvement of an area, usually with money invested by the government and businesses.
City Challenge Scheme
A project to regenerate UK cities in the 1990s. It came after London Docklands project started and included places like Manchester and Liverpool.
Advantage of city challenge schemes.
They worked with local people to ask them what they wanted building, and it had more affordable houses
Disadvantages of city challenge schemes
The amount of money the government gave was small, as cities had to compete for funding.
The urban heat island effect
When urban areas experiences higher temperatures than the surrounding rural areas
Albedo
The reflectiveness of a surface. The lighter the colour, the more reflective of heat/light. The darker, the more absorbant.
Thermal gradient
The change in temperature from CBD out towards the suburbs and rural areas
Negatives of urban heat islands
- Health issues e.g asthma
- Problems sleeping at night
- More energy used for air conditioning
- Vegetation maybe be killed, or the natural growth cycle may be disturbed
- Thermal expansion damaging buildings (weathering)
- Increased risk of wild fires
Ways of reducing urban heat island
- Planting trees
- Roof gardens
- Painting roofs white
Fog
A thick cloud of tiny water droplets suspended in the atmosphere at or near the earths surface
Mist
A light fog
Smog
A mixture of fog and smoke from burning fossil fuels
Photochemical smog
When pollution comes from cars (rather than factories), the smog mixes with sunlight and creates other harmful chemicals.
Negative effects of air pollution / smog
- Difficulty breathing
- Eye irritation
- Acid rain
- Global warming
- Poor visibility causing car accidents
What is the ULEZ
The ultra low emission zone. A policy in London that charges cars to enter the zone depending on how many emissions they release.
Advantages of ULEZ
Reduces air pollution in London, by a predicted 45%
Disadvantages of the ULEZ
Small business owners are concerned over the extra costs
Urban wind canyon
When there are narrow streets that have tall buildings either side, so it concentrates the wind
Venturi effect
A violent gust of wind formed in a narrow gap. The air rushes in to a low pressure area, creating an eddy current on the ‘lee side’ (sheltered side) of the building.
How are urban town planners designing cities to reduce the urban wind canyon and Venturi effect?
They are varying the height and space between buildings to reduce the effects.
6 steps to the formation of lightning in urban areas
1) Urban areas have a lot of pollutant emitting buildings
2) The buildings radiate heat and give out pollution
3) The hot air and pullulant particles rise during the day
4) The air cools, condenses around the nuclei in clouds by the afternoon and evening
5) the rapid rise and cooling of air creates friction and induces a charge in the droplets
6) The charge is discharged into the earth and lightning happens
Cloud condensation nuclei (CNN)
Particles in the air that help make clouds
Dew point
When water vapour reaches a certain temperature and it condenses into rain
Interception
When raindrops land on leaves on trees
Impermeable
When the ground surface does not allow water to soak in
Surface run off
When water flows over land and does not soak in
Infiltration
When water soaks down in to the layers of soil and rock
Inputs in the water cycle
When water enters the system
Outputs of the water cycles
When water leaves the system
Stores in the water system
When water is kept for an extended period of time
Flows in the water cycles
When water moves from one store to another
Why do LICs suffer the worse from pollution?
They are more vulnerable to drought and food shortages
Hard engineering
Ways to manage water drainage by building structures to control flow of water. They can be costly and require maintenance
Soft engineering
Ways to manage drainage by adapting to the natural processes. They tend to be more affordable and sustainable long term.
What are SuDS?
Sustainable drainage systems. Using natural processes to reduce flooding, and provide something for the community that improves the look of the area. They sometimes mix hard and soft engineering.
What are Swales?
Shallow, broad and vegetated channels designed to store or convert runoff and remove pollutants.
What are permeable surfaces?
Allow water to infiltrate across the entire surface by having lots of small holes on the surface.
What are green roofs?
Covering the roof of a building with vegetation. They are designed to intercept and retain precipitation, reducing surface run off
What are bio retention areas?
Shallow landscaped depression which have vegetation and filtration to remove pollution and reduce runoff downstream
What are rain gardens?
Relatively small depressions in the ground that can act as infiltration points for water, usually running from roofs and gutters
What are retention ponds?
Large pits in the ground
Provide both storm water reduction and treatment.
River restoration
When all hard engineering is removed from a river and it is restored to its natural state - with meanders, vegetation, and habitats.
Channelisation
When a river is put inside a straight, man made channel.
Water pollution
The contamination of water (lakes, rivers, ground water, etc) by pollutants that have not been treated to remove harmful compounds.
Algae blooms
Surface run off from farming fields contains fertiliser, which enters bodies of water.
This causes a rapid growth in algae, which starves the water of oxygen and kills wildlife
What does low impact development involve (water pollution management)
The use of vegetation and permeable surface to reduce surface runoff directly into sewers.
The soil filters rainfall of pollutants by 90% rather than directly going into sewers.
How does legislation help with water quality management?
Incentive based approaches that charges companies for how much pollution they release.
Factories are only allowed to release a certain amount of pollutants
What did they do in 2014 to help with water quality management?
Wessex water used mobile billboards to get behind a campaign encouraging people to bin wet wipes rather than flushing them
Appropriate technology definition
Any device that is suited to the needs, skills and wealth, of the people who live in a local area.
How does the omniprocessor work?
Boils raw sewage, separating water vapour from solids. Solids are burnt which produced steam, spinning turbines to generate electricity. The electricity is used to power itself and the local community.
Types of waste
- Residential
- Industrial
- Commercial
- Institutional
- Construction
- Urban services
E - waste definition
Old electronic waste, e.g old phones. More common in HICs. Has dangerous chemicals in batteries.
Problems of waste in LICs
- Risk of infection
- Selling items only creates small income
- Toxic waste can less to illness
Opportunities of waste in LICs
- Waste items can be recycled and sold
- Reduces waste going to landfill
- Reduces size of landfill, making an area nicer to live in.
What is municipal solid waste (MSW)?
Rubbish from peoples homes. It does not include waste from places such as farms, factories, etc..
What is the waste stream?
The journey an item has from when it is thrown away to where it ends up
What is the global waste trade?
The legal and sometimes illegal selling of waste such as plastic, from one country to another
What are Leachates?
Liquid created when waste rots. It leaks out and contaminated solid and rivers
What are heavy metals?
High density metals that are toxic, such as cadmium, mercury and lead.
What are brown field sites?
Land previously used for another building
What is dereliction?
When an area has many derelict (abandoned) buildings.
What does it mean when a building is listed?
It has special historic interest and is protected from being knocked down.
What is land remediation?
Removing polluted or contaminated soil on an abandoned brownfield site, to reduce the impact on people or the environment.
What is urban resilience?
The capacity of individuals, communities or other organisations to adapt to problems.
What are the two types of problems that cities face?
- Chronic stress
- Acute shocks
Ecological footprint definition
The area of land needed to provide the resources needed and absorb the pollution made by one person, city, or country
Sustainability definition
Doing things that help but don’t leave problems for the future - environmentally, socially, or economically,
Liveability
The combination of factors that make an area have a good quality of life. It is linked to sustainability, but is specifically about life in urban areas.
