Urban environments

Question 1

What are the characteristics of urban places?

Answer 1

• Site
• Function
• Land use
• Hierarchy of settlement
• Growth process

Question 2

Explain site

Answer 2

The site refers to the actual location of a settlement on the Earth, and the term includes the physical characteristics of the landscape specific to the area, some examples of factors that may be included are: landforms, climate, vegetation and wildlife.

Question 3

Explain land use

Answer 3

Land use refers to the function of the land. For example, the land use of an area may be residential, which means people live there. The land use can also be commercial meaning there are stores in the area that sell high and/or low order goods.

Question 4

Explain hierarchy of settlement

Answer 4

Hierarchy of settlement is when settlements are put in an order and classified based on their size and/or range of services that they provide for people. The higher up the hierarchy, the fewer settlements they’ll include but they’ll increase in their size in terms of population and the number of services provided, therefore a megacity will be at the top of a hierarchy settlement. The hierarchy can be seen below from top to bottom:
- Megacity
- Conurbation
- City
- Town
- Village
- Hamlet
- Isolated home

Question 5

Explain function

Answer 5

Function refers to what the land is used for, so it’s similar to land use. The function of land varies from area to area. For example in rural areas the function of land will be forestry and farming, whereas, in urban areas the function of land will be housing or housing or industry.

Question 6

Explain growth process

Answer 6

Growth process refers to the different ways that urban areas develop and this happens over a period of time.

The stages of the growth process include:
- Pre-industrial: High birth/death rates, slow growth
- Transitional: Falling death rates, rapid growth
- Industrial: Falling birth rates, slowing growth
- Post-industrial: Low birth/death rates, stable/declining population

Factors that influence growth process are:
- Economic development
- Technological advancements
- Social/cultural changes
- Urbanization

There are two types of growth process, and these are planned or spontaneous. When the growth process is planned it’s controlled and strategically managed. However, when it’s spontaneous it’s unplanned, natural growth without intervention

The demographic transition model illustrates these stages of growth process. This model is based on historical population trends of two demographic characters, which are birth rate and death rate.

Question 7

Case studies for characteristics of urban places

Answer 7

• Lausanne: For example, the site of Lausanne is that it’s located on hills and there’s limited flat land, this makes construction difficult.
• Shanghai: For example, Shanghai is a megacity, therefore it’s at the top of the settlement hierarchy.

Question 8

What factors affect the pattern of urban economic activities?

Answer 8

• physical factors
• land values
• proximity to a central business district (CBD)
• planning

Question 9

Explain retail activity

Answer 9

The sale of goods and services directly to consumers. Retail activity includes:
- Shops
- Malls
- Markets.

Key characteristics include:
- Location-dependent, often seeking high customer footfall areas
- Influenced by demographics and accessibility
- Sensitive to competition and market demand
- Traditionally concentrated in city centers, but increasingly moving to out-of-town locations
- Affected by land values, with prime locations commanding higher rents
- Evolving due to e-commerce and changing consumer habits

Question 10

What is included in urban economic activities?

Answer 10

• Retail
• Commercial
• Industrial

Question 11

Explain commercial activity

Answer 11

Service-based businesses typically located in offices. Commercial activity includes:
- Financial services (banking, insurance)
- Legal services
- Technology and IT support
- Business consulting
- Real estate

Key characteristics of commercial include:
- Often clustered in central business districts (CBDs)
- Require good infrastructure and transport links
- Benefit from proximity to other businesses
- Usually occupy multi-story office buildings
- Contribute significantly to urban employment and economy

Question 12

Explain industrial activity

Answer 12

Industrial activities refers to manufacturing, processing, transport, and storage of goods. Industrial activity typically includes:
- Factories
- Warehouses
- Ports
- Harbors

Key characteristics of industrial include:
- Natural resources or semi-processed goods used as inputs for production
- Skilled and unskilled workers to operate equipment and perform various tasks.
- Infrastructure for moving raw materials and finished products, including roads, railways, and ports.

Question 13

Explain how physical factors affect the pattern of urban economic activities

Answer 13

Urban economic activities will be placed where physical factors don’t provide an extra difficulty. For example, they’ll place most often where it’s flat because it’s cheaper to construct and will likely attract more people, this is especially true for retail and commercial.

Question 14

Explain how land values affect the pattern of urban economic activities

Answer 14

Urban economic activities will be placed where land values are cheapest. However this does vary greatly. For example low order commercial goods will be located where land value is cheap, where high order commercial goods will be located where land value is high because they can afford it.

Question 15

Explain how proximity to central business district CBD affect the pattern of urban economic activities

Answer 15

Urban economic activities want to be located as close as possible to the CBD. This is because it’s where the most amount of food traffic is, and therefore the chance of people wanting to enter the retail, commercial or industrial place increases. More examples include:
- Accessibility as the CBD offers best access to transport networks and workforce
- Cluster because Businesses benefit from clustering near similar activities in CBD

Question 16

Explain how planning affect the pattern of urban economic activities

Answer 16

Zoning laws and urban planning regulations directly influence the spatial distribution of economic activities, determining where retail, commercial and industrial sectors can operate. Politics on environmental regulation, labour laws and trade agreements also impact business operations. More examples include:
- Zoning, designates specific areas for retail, commercial, and industrial use
- Infrastructure Development, influences business location through transport links

Question 17

Case study for factors affecting the pattern of urban economic activities

Answer 17

• Lausanne. For example, the CBD is Riponne and this is where many businesses such as banks and clothing stores are located because it’s a high traffic area. However, because land values are very high the amount of residential land is relatively low. There are some apartments especially when the distance from the CBD increases, but there are few houses.

Question 18

What factors affect the pattern of residential areas within urban areas?

Answer 18

• Physical factors
• Land values
• Ethnicity
• Planning

Question 19

Explain how physical factors affect the pattern of residential areas within urban areas

Answer 19

Residential areas are likely to be built where physical factors are unlikely to pose extra challenges during construction or in the future. For example, where land is flat will be high in residential areas because it’s cheaper to construct and risk of a landslide in the future will be lower. However, there are exceptions, such as houses on the beach because of the beautiful scenery.

More examples of physical factors:
- Topography: Slopes and elevation affect residential development
- Water proximity: Rivers, lakes, and coastlines impact housing locations
- Climate: Temperature and weather patterns influence residential preferences

In HICs (High-Income Countries):
- Hillsides and waterfront areas often high-value due to views
- Cooler, elevated areas preferred in hot climates

LICs (Low-Income Countries):
- Slopes and water-adjacent areas often house low-income settlements
- Flood-prone areas and unstable slopes pose risks to residents

Examples:
Hong Kong’s “The Peak”: Wealthy area on hillside
Favelas in Rio de Janeiro: Low-income settlements on unstable slopes

Question 20

Explain how land values affects the pattern of residential areas within urban areas

Answer 20

Often residential areas will be located where land values are cheaper. The reason for this is that construction of housing or apartments is expensive and requires a large amount of space, which isn’t affordable to the average person. This is especially true when speaking about houses instead of apartments. More examples of how land values affect this area:
- Gentrification is when high land values can drive redevelopment of inner-city areas, displacing lower-income residents.
- Socioeconomic gradient creates a spatial distribution of wealth across the city, with affluent neighborhoods often closer to the center.

Question 21

Explain how ethnicity affects the pattern of residential areas within urban areas

Answer 21

It’s likely that residential areas will contain one ethnicity group. This is because it makes the ethnicity group feel comfortable in where they’re living and they feel a sense of community. More example of how ethnicity affects this area:

• Cultural preferences as different housing types, layouts, and proximity to cultural institutions.
• Social networks leads to clustering for community support and cultural preservation.
• Economic factors leads to a concentration in certain areas due to income levels or discrimination.
• Migration patterns as ew immigrant groups often settle in specific urban zones
• Segregation can result from both voluntary choices and external discrimination

Question 22

Explain how planning affects the pattern of residential areas within urban areas

Answer 22

Urban planning now has strict regulations in terms of residential areas. For example, in Lausanne, Switzerland it’s illegal to build houses near the CBD because it doesn’t house enough people. More examples of how planning affects this area are:

• Mixed-income housing because planners often aim to create diverse neighborhoods with housing for various socio-economic groups.
• Urban renewal includes redevelopment of older areas can lead to gentrification or improved housing conditions.
• Historic preservation in order to maintain traditional residential patterns or create heritage districts.
• Social housing initiatives as Government policies influence distribution of affordable housing.
• Green space allocation includes planning for parks and recreational areas affects residential attractiveness.

Question 23

The incidence of poverty, deprivation and informal activity in urban areas at varying stages of development:

Answer 23

Poverty, deprivation and informal activity in high income countries, due to many reasons. For example most HIC governments have a social security system which acts as a safety net for the poorest in society and ensures that everyone has healthcare, education and income. However, this can be a very low level and although it is likely to prevent absolute poverty, relative poverty is still likely. An example is New York City, USA. New York contains some of the world’s wealthiest districts, but poverty and social deprivation are still common.

Low income countries have higher levels of absolute poverty, deprivation and informal activity because they don’t have a strong state that can afford to provide for all of its citizens, nor do most individuals have strong finances. An example is Kibera in Nairobi, Kenya. Kibera is one of the world’s largest squatter settlement, with at least 700,000 people living there.

Question 24

Case study for the incidence of poverty, deprivation and informal activity in urban areas

Answer 24

Kibera, Nairobi:
- Population: 170,070-500,000+ (estimates vary)
- 50% unemployment rate
- 60% of Nairobi’s population lives in slums, occupying 6% of land
- Average income: Less than $2 per day
- 12% HIV prevalence
- Limited access to clean water, electricity, and sanitation
- High incidence of informal economic activities

Sparkbrook, Birmingham:
- Population: Approximately 32,000 (2011 census)
- Unemployment rate: 9.4% (2011, higher than city average)
- 35% of children live in poverty (2015)
- Ethnically diverse area with high immigrant population
- Some informal economic activities, but less prevalent than Kibera
- Better access to basic services and infrastructure than Kibera

Question 25

What does urbanisation, natural increase and centripetal population movements include?

Answer 25

Rural-urban migration in industrializing cities:
- People moving from rural to urban areas
- Common in industrializing cities
- Driven by economic opportunities and better services

Inner city gentrification in post-industrial cities:
- Occurs in post-industrial cities
- Renovation of deteriorated urban areas
- Influx of more affluent residents
- Often displaces lower-income residents

Question 26

Explain urbanization

Answer 26

The meaning of urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. It occurs because people move from rural areas (countryside) to urban areas (towns and cities). This usually occurs when a country is still developing.

Question 27

Explain natural increase

Answer 27

The meaning of natural increase is the difference between the number of live births and deaths, generally calculated over a year.

Question 28

Explain centripetal population movements

Answer 28

The meaning of centripetal population movements is the movement into the city. Urban “pull” factors that attract people from villages to cities. They include better housing, improved sanitation, perceived job prospects, etc. in urban areas.

Question 29

Explain rural-urban migration in industrialising cities

Answer 29

Rural-urban migration in industrialising cities is when people move from rural areas to urban areas in industrialising cities. An industrialising city is where the economy is based on the industry, such as a mining town.

This can be caused by:
- Lack of rural jobs, mechanization of agriculture, land scarcity
- Perceived job opportunities, better services, higher wages in other cities

The effects this has are:
- Strain on urban infrastructure and services
- Growth of informal economy in cities
- Changes in urban demographics and social structures
- Potential for improved economic opportunities for migrants

Question 30

What does centrifugal population movements include?

Answer 30

• Suburbanization
• Counter-urbanization

Question 31

Explain inner city gentrification in post-industrial cities

Answer 31

Inner city gentrification in post industrial cities Process of reinvestment and renewal in previously declining inner-city areas.

This can be caused by:
- Deindustrialization leaving vacant spaces
- Proximity to city centers and amenities
- Lower initial property costs

The effects this has are:
- Displacement of lower-income residents
- Improved infrastructure and services
- Changes in neighborhood character
- Increased economic activity

Question 32

Explain suburbanization

Answer 32

The meaning of suburbanization is the expansion of urban settlements beyond the borders of the core city into its surrounding regions, triggered by the migration of households and companies.

Question 33

Explain counter-urbanization

Answer 33

The meaning of counter-urbanization is when large numbers of people move from urban areas into surrounding countryside or rural areas.

Question 34

Case study for urbanization, natural increase and centripetal population movements

Answer 34

Flon:
- Originally an industrial area along the Flon river in the 19th century.
- Transformed from abandoned warehouses to a vibrant urban district
- Lausanne’s population grew to 150,000 residents by 2023.
- Diverse population with 42% non-Swiss resident
- Attracted businesses, shops, and cultural venues post-redevelopment.
- Became a magnet for young people and urban professionals

Question 35

Case study for centrifugal population movements

Answer 35

China:
- Population center initially moved towards Beijing, then away
- Gini coefficient increased from 0.62 to 0.64, then decreased to 0.58
- Comprises 13 cities, including Beijing (central city), Tianjin, and 11 others
- 112.7 million permanent residents (8.08% of China’s population) by 2018

Suburbanization:
- Large-scale movement to urban fringes and satellite towns
- Driven by overcrowding and high costs in city centers
- Tongzhou district (Beijing’s eastern suburb)
- Population grew from 870,000 in 2010 to 1.6 million in 2019

Counter-urbanization:
- Jing-Jin-Ji region
- 15% of Beijing’s population moved to surrounding areas (2017-2018)

Question 36

What does urban system growth include?

Answer 36

Infrastructure improvements over time such as transport, sanitation, water, waste disposal and telecommunicatioms.

Question 37

Explain how transport can be improved over time

Answer 37

How it can be improved:
- Development of new roads, railways, airports, and ports.
- Introduction of faster, more efficient vehicles and systems.
- Linking previously isolated areas to urban centers.
- Upgrading existing networks to handle more traffic or passengers.

Impacts:
- Enhanced transport networks facilitate trade, reduce costs, and promote business activities.
- Improved public transport and reduced car dependency can lower greenhouse gas emissions and pollution.
- Better transport access can connect marginalized communities to jobs and services, promoting equity.

Examples:
- London’s Congestion Charge: A successful policy that reduces traffic congestion by charging vehicles entering the city center during peak hours, leading to improved public transport usage and air quality.
- Smart Traffic Management in Singapore: The use of technology to optimize traffic flow, reducing congestion and travel times across the city.

Question 38

Explain how sanitation can be improved over time

Answer 38

How it can be improved:
- Building and upgrading sewage systems, treatment plants, and waste disposal facilities.
- Ensuring reliable water supply through piped networks and treatment facilities.
- Educating communities about hygiene practices and the importance of sanitation.
- Utilizing innovative solutions like waste-to-energy systems and eco-friendly toilets.

Impacts:
- Reduction in waterborne diseases, leading to lower morbidity and mortality rates.
Economic Growth: Enhanced quality of life attracts investment and boosts productivity.
Environmental Protection: Improved waste management reduces pollution and protects natural resources.
- Better sanitation access promotes social inclusion and improves living conditions for marginalized communities.

Examples:
- Singapore: Implemented a comprehensive waste management system and public education campaigns, significantly reducing disease rates.
- Ethiopia: Initiatives like the construction of sanitation facilities in urban areas have improved public health outcomes.
- India: The Swachh Bharat Mission aims to improve sanitation through the construction of toilets and public awareness programs.

Question 39

Explain how water can be improved over time

Answer 39

How it can be improved:
- Implementing filtration and purification processes to remove contaminants.
- Converting seawater into freshwater, especially in arid regions.
- Collecting and storing rainwater for future use.
- Reusing wastewater for irrigation or industrial processes.
- Building and maintaining reservoirs, pipelines, and treatment plants.

Impacts:
- Reduced waterborne diseases and improved public health.
- Enhanced agricultural productivity and industrial efficiency.
- Better management of water resources leads to conservation of ecosystems.
- Improved access to clean water for marginalized communities.

Examples:
- Singapore’s NEWater: A successful water recycling program that treats wastewater for potable use
- Water Treatment Facilities in the U.S.: Advanced filtration systems in urban areas to ensure safe drinking water

Question 40

Explain how waste disposal can be improved over time

Answer 40

How it can be improved:
- Utilize AI and robotics for efficient sorting and recycling of waste materials.
- Implement comprehensive recycling initiatives that include collection, sorting, and processing of various materials.
- Develop incineration facilities that capture emissions and convert waste into energy, reducing landfill reliance.
- Promote composting of organic waste to reduce landfill volume and create nutrient-rich soil.
- Educate communities about waste reduction, recycling, and responsible disposal practices.

Impacts:
- Reduces pollution, conserves resources, and minimizes greenhouse gas emissions.
- Creates jobs in recycling and waste management sectors, and reduces costs associated with landfill use.
- Decreases the risk of diseases associated with poor waste management and pollution.
- Encourages a circular economy, promoting resource efficiency and reducing waste generation.

Examples:
- Germany: Known for its robust recycling system, where over 60% of waste is recycled, significantly reducing landfill use.
- Sweden: Utilizes waste-to-energy plants that convert 99% of waste into energy, demonstrating effective waste management.

Question 41

Explain how telecommunications can be improved over time

Answer 41

How it can be improved:
- Expanding and upgrading networks, such as transitioning from copper to fiber-optic cables, enhances speed and reliability.
- Implementing new technologies like 5G increases data transfer rates and supports more devices simultaneously.
- Continuous research into new communication technologies and methods fosters innovation.
- Governments can promote competition and investment in telecommunications through favorable policies.

Impacts:
- Enhanced telecommunications lead to better global communication, reducing the digital divide.
- Improved access to information and communication technologies (ICT) boosts productivity and opens new markets.
- Enhanced communication fosters social interactions, supporting remote work, education, and access to services.
- Easier communication facilitates the sharing of ideas and cultures globally.

Examples:
- Countries like South Korea and China have implemented 5G technology, drastically improving mobile internet speeds and enabling smart city initiatives.
- In regions like Sub-Saharan Africa, mobile networks have expanded access to the internet, driving economic and educational opportunities.

Question 42

Case study of infrastructure growth over time in one city

Answer 42

Shanghai:
- Background: One of the largest cities globally, with a population exceeding 29 million, experiencing rapid urbanization and economic growth.
- Transport: Extensive transport network including the Yangshan Deep-Water Port (world’s busiest), two major international airports, and a metro system with over 400 km of lines serving millions daily.
- Water and Sanitation: Access to piped water improved from 40% in 1990 to nearly 95% in 2007. Major challenges include pollution and water quality issues.
- Waste Management: Produces over 30,000 tonnes of waste daily. Implemented mandatory waste sorting in 2019 and increased reliance on waste incineration for energy generation.
- Telecommunications: High density of 5G networks, with significant advancements in connectivity and digital infrastructure.

Lausanne:
- Background: A city with a population of about 140,000, located on the shores of Lake Geneva, known for its role in education and international organizations.
- Transport: Extensive public transport system including trains, trams, and buses. The Lausanne Metro, operational since 2008, enhances connectivity.
- Water and Sanitation: High access to clean water and sanitation services; water sourced from Lake Geneva and treated to meet quality standards.
- Waste Management: Efficient waste disposal systems with recycling programs in place. The city emphasizes sustainability and eco-friendly practices.
- Telecommunications: Advanced infrastructure with widespread internet access and high mobile connectivity.

Question 43

The causes of urban deindustrialization

Answer 43

• Transition from manufacturing-based economies to service-oriented economies reduces the demand for industrial jobs.
• Industries relocate to countries with lower labor costs to enhance cost efficiency and access new markets.
• Automation and new technologies decrease the need for large workforces, making many traditional manufacturing jobs obsolete.
• Stricter regulations in urban areas can drive industries to relocate to regions with less stringent standards.
• The need for larger, more efficient production sites often leads to the closure of smaller urban factories.

Question 44

Economic, social and demographic consequences of urban deindustrialization

Answer 44

Economic Consequences:
- Job Loss: Significant unemployment, particularly for low-skilled workers.
- Reduced Tax Base: Decline in local government revenue, leading to cuts in public services.
- Stagnant Wages: Depressed income levels due to fewer job opportunities.
- Economic Decline: Overall decrease in economic activity and investment in affected areas.

Social Consequences:
- Increased Crime: Higher crime rates due to unemployment and reduced police presence.
- Health Issues: Rise in substance abuse, mental health problems, and general public health decline.
- Social Dislocation: Loss of community cohesion and trust in institutions.
- Urban Decay: Deterioration of infrastructure and public spaces.

Demographic Consequences:
- Outmigration: Young people leave for better opportunities, leading to population decline.
- Aging Population: Remaining residents tend to be older, as younger individuals seek employment elsewhere.
- Gender Imbalance: Potential shifts in gender demographics depending on migration patterns.

Question 45

Case study for the causes of urban deindustrialization

Answer 45

Causes of Deindustrialization

Economic Shifts:
- Globalization: Manufacturing jobs moved to countries with cheaper labor, reducing jobs in Detroit.
- Automation: Increased use of robots in auto manufacturing led to job losses and reduced labor demand.

Suburbanization:
- The White Flight phenomenon in the 1960s saw many white residents leaving Detroit for suburbs, driven by racial tensions and better living conditions. This migration left behind a predominantly Black population in a declining urban environment.

Decline of the Auto Industry:
- Post-WWII, Detroit’s auto industry faced competition from foreign manufacturers, leading to factory closures and job losses.

Social and Racial Tensions:
- The 1967 Detroit riots were a response to systemic racism and economic inequality, exacerbated by deindustrialization. The riots highlighted the deep-seated issues of racial discrimination and limited economic opportunities for Black residents.

Question 46

Case study for economic, social and demographic consequences of urban deindustrialization

Answer 46

Economic Decline:
- By 2010, Detroit’s population had decreased by 61.4% since its peak in 1950, leading to a hollowed-out tax base and reduced city services.

Increased Unemployment:
- Job losses from factory closures resulted in high unemployment rates, particularly affecting low-skilled workers.

Social Issues:
- Rising crime rates and poverty levels surged, with Detroit experiencing a poverty rate of 33.2% by 2021.

Urban Decay:
- Abandoned houses and factories became common, contributing to blight and decreased property values.

Inequality:
- A stark economic divide emerged, with affluent suburbs contrasting sharply against the impoverished city, leading to increased social tensions.

Question 47

Explain urban microclimate

Answer 47

Urban microclimate modification refers to the changes in local climate conditions within urban areas compared to surrounding rural areas.

Urban areas can be significantly warmer than rural surroundings due to human activities and infrastructure, with temperatures often 1.8–5.4°F (1–3°C) higher on average, and up to 22°F (12°C) warmer at night.

More causes of an urban microclimate include:
- Urban surfaces (concrete, asphalt) have low albedo, absorbing more heat.
- Heat generated from vehicles, buildings, and industrial activities contributes to elevated temperatures.
- Fewer plants reduce cooling through evapotranspiration.
- High-rise structures create canyons that trap heat.

Question 48

What are some urban microclimate modifcation?

Answer 48

• Planting trees and creating green spaces to provide shade and enhance evapotranspiration.
• Installing gardens on rooftops to reduce heat absorption and improve insulation.
• Using light-colored materials for buildings and pavements to minimize heat retention.
• Planning for better airflow and reducing building density to enhance ventilation.b

Question 49

What is the urban heat island effect?

Answer 49

The effect is urban areas are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas, primarily due to human activities and infrastructure.

Causes:
- Heat from vehicles, factories, and buildings.
- Dark materials (like asphalt) absorb more heat.
- Less evapotranspiration leads to higher temperatures.
- High-rise structures trap heat in urban canyons.

Impacts:
- Increased energy consumption for cooling.
- Elevated air pollution levels.
- Health risks from heat-related illnesses.

Question 50

What are air pollution patterns

Answer 50

Urban areas typically experience higher pollution levels due to traffic, industrial emissions, and construction activities.

Causes:
- Burning of Fossil Fuels are a major source of pollutants like sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide from vehicles and power plants.
- Use of fertilizers and pesticides emits ammonia and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Impacts:
- Linked to respiratory diseases, heart conditions, and premature deaths.
- Children and vulnerable populations are particularly at risk.
- Emissions of certain pollutants contribute to the degradation of the ozone layer, increasing UV radiation exposure.

Question 51

Management of urban microclimate modifications

Answer 51

• Educating residents on the effects of microclimates and promoting sustainable practices.
• Enforcing regulations to reduce emissions and encourage green infrastructure.
• Using technology to track urban climate changes and assess the effectiveness of management strategies.

Question 52

Case study of air pollution in one city and its varying impact on people

Answer 52

Paris:
- The key pollutants are Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂), which is primarily from vehicle emissions, contributing to two-thirds of NO₂ levels in the city. Also particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5), coming from road traffic accounts for one-third of PM10 emissions, with levels consistently above WHO guidelines.
- Air pollution is responsible for approximately 48,000 premature deaths annually in France, highlighting its severe impact on public health.
- Residents near busy roads report increased respiratory issues, such as chronic bronchitis and asthma attacks, particularly during pollution peaks.
- More than 75% of the population in the Île-de-France region is exposed to both air and noise pollution, exacerbating health risks.
- Children and the elderly are particularly vulnerable, facing higher risks of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
- Paris aims to eliminate diesel vehicles by 2020 to reduce emissions significantly.
- Promotion of Public Transport and Cycling: Expansion of bike-sharing programs (e.g., Velib’) and electric vehicle initiatives, with plans to install 1,400 km of cycle lanes by 2020.
- Low Emission Zones: Implementation of zones restricting access to high-emission vehicles, particularly in central areas.
- In a landmark case, a court ruled that the French state failed to take adequate measures to curb air pollution, holding it accountable for health impacts on residents. This case signifies a shift towards legal recognition of pollution’s health effects.
- Reducing traffic is projected to decrease NO₂ emissions significantly, improving overall air quality.

Question 53

Traffic congestion patterns

Answer 53

• Commonly occur at junctions, roundabouts, and highway on/off-ramps where traffic converges, leading to slowdowns.
• Increased congestion in suburban regions as more people commute to urban jobs.
• Congestion is typically more severe in city centers due to high population density and limited road space.
• Significant congestion during morning (7-9 AM) and evening (5-7 PM) rush hours due to synchronized commuter travel.
• Weekdays generally experience higher congestion levels compared to weekends, with specific days like Mondays and Fridays being particularly busy.
• Traffic patterns shift during holidays and events, leading to temporary spikes in congestion.

Question 54

Traffic congestion trends

Answer 54

• Rapid urban growth contributes to increased vehicle numbers and congestion.
• Rising middle-class populations lead to higher car ownership, exacerbating congestion.
• Inadequate public transportation options push more commuters to rely on personal vehicles.

Question 55

Traffic congestion impacts

Answer 55

• Idling vehicles contribute to higher emissions of CO2 and other pollutants, worsening urban air quality.
• Increased traffic noise affects urban living conditions and overall quality of life.
• Delays in traffic result in lost work hours and increased operational costs for businesses.
• Prolonged idling and detours lead to higher fuel consumption.
• Prolonged exposure to air pollution can lead to respiratory issues and stress-related health problems.
• Increased travel times can reduce leisure time, impacting mental well-being.
• Time spent in traffic reduces opportunities for family and leisure activities, affecting overall life satisfaction.
• Congestion drives affluent residents to move to suburban or rural areas to escape urban traffic issues.

Question 56

Case study of one affected city and the management strategies

Answer 56

Paris:
Climate Action Plan:
Under Mayor Anne Hidalgo’s 2018 Climate Action Plan, Paris has implemented several strategies to combat the UHI effect:
- Addition of nearly 70 hectares of green spaces and rooftop gardens to improve air quality and reduce temperatures.
- Creation of shaded areas through increased tree planting and green roofs.
- Use of reflective materials in construction to lower heat absorption.

Olympic Village:
Designed for the 2024 Olympics, this project includes:
- Rooftop gardens and solar panels on one-third of the buildings.
- Geothermal cooling systems instead of traditional air conditioning, reducing indoor temperatures by 6-10°C compared to outdoor levels.
- A mini forest with 200 trees to provide shade and enhance coolin

“License to Green” Initiative:
- Encourages citizens to plant trees and create gardens on vacant land, fostering community involvement in greening efforts.

Question 57

What does contested land use changes include?

Answer 57

• Slum clearances
• Urban redevelopment
• Depletion of green space

Question 58

What does slum clearances mean?

Answer 58

Slum clearance refers to the process of removing low-income, often informal settlements known as slums, with the intention of redeveloping the area for new housing or other urban purposes. This strategy is typically part of urban renewal efforts aimed at improving living conditions and aesthetics in cities.

The practice emerged in the 19th century in response to poor living conditions in rapidly industrializing cities, particularly in the UK and the US. Early examples include the Housing Act of 1930 in the UK, which mandated plans for slum clearance.

Slum Clearance in Rio:
- As of 2020, approximately 1.5 million people lived in favelas, representing about 24% of the city’s population.
- Pacifying Police Units (UPPs) launched in 2008, these units aimed to reduce crime and improve living conditions in favelas through police presence and community engagement. However, they often led to forced evictions and displacement of residents.
- Ahead of the 2016 Olympic Games, the government implemented slum clearance programs to “beautify” the city, resulting in the demolition of several favelas, such as the Vila Autódromo community. This led to the displacement of over 1,000 families, many of whom received inadequate compensation and were relocated to distant areas lacking essential services.

Question 59

What does urban redevelopment mean?

Answer 59

Urban redevelopment refers to the process of demolishing and reconstructing or significantly renovating existing buildings and infrastructure within urban areas, often aimed at revitalizing declining neighborhoods. This process is essential for addressing urban decay and improving living conditions. It often includes:
- Involves tearing down old structures to make way for new developments.
- Upgrading existing buildings to meet modern standards.
- Development within existing urban areas rather than expanding outward.

Urban redevelopment in Rio:
Favela Bairro Program: Launched in the 1990s, this program aimed to integrate informal settlements (favelas) into the urban fabric of Rio.
- Improvements: Infrastructure upgrades, including roads, sanitation, and public services.
- Impact: Enhanced living conditions for over 250,000 residents in various favelas.
- Urban redevelopment projects in Rio have attracted investments exceeding $8 billion since 2009.
- Despite improvements, gentrification concerns arise as redevelopment can lead to displacement of low-income residents.

Question 60

What does depletion of green space mean?

Answer 60

Depletion of green space refers to the reduction and loss of natural areas in urban environments, such as parks, gardens, and forests, due to urban development and land use changes. This phenomenon has significant implications for environmental quality, public health, and urban livability.

Depletion of green space in Rio:
- Rio has experienced extensive urbanization, leading to significant loss of green spaces. Between 1990 and 2010, the city lost approximately 22% of its green areas, primarily due to housing developments and infrastructure projects.
- Studies indicate that the loss of green spaces correlates with increased respiratory issues and mental health problems among residents. Access to green areas is associated with lower stress levels and improved physical health.
- The depletion of green spaces has contributed to increased urban heat, reduced biodiversity, and higher levels of air pollution. For instance, areas with fewer trees experience higher temperatures, exacerbating the urban heat island effect.

Question 61

Detailed contrasting examples of two affected neighborhoods and their populations for contested land use changes

Answer 61

Kibera, Kenya:
- located in Southwestern Nairobi, Kenya
- Kibera is one of the largest urban slums in Africa, characterized by overcrowded living conditions, inadequate sanitation, and high poverty levels.
- Slum Upgrading Project to initiate to improve living conditions, including infrastructure, sanitation, and housing.
- Upgrading efforts have led to rising rents and property values, displacing low-income residents who can no longer afford to live in upgraded areas.
- Over 3,500 people employed through construction projects related to the slum renewal initiative.
- he government plans to construct permanent housing, but many residents lack title deeds, making them vulnerable to eviction.

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil:
- Favelas, particularly Rocinha, the largest favela in Brazil.
- Rocinha is known for its vibrant culture but also faces challenges such as violence, poverty, and inadequate public services.
- As property values rise, original residents face eviction or are forced to relocate to peripheral areas.
- Efforts to “pacify” favelas have led to increased police presence and infrastructure development, but often at the cost of displacing long-time residents.
- Favelas like Rocinha are often associated with drug trafficking and violence, complicating efforts for urban renewal and safety.
- Initiatives aimed at integrating favelas into the broader urban fabric have been met with mixed success, with ongoing debates about the effectiveness of these programs.

Question 62

How to manage the impacts of urban social deprivation?

Answer 62

Community Development Programs:
- Empower communities through skills training, employment support, and social interaction initiatives.
- Example: Community gardens can provide fresh food and foster community ties.

Improving Education:
- Enhance access to quality education and vocational training to break the cycle of deprivation.
- Schools can offer support services like counseling to address underlying issues.

Healthcare Access:
- Improve access to healthcare services and promote healthy lifestyles.
- Address social determinants of health, such as housing and employment conditions.

Economic Growth:
- Promote inclusive economic growth by attracting investments and supporting local businesses.
- Implement progressive taxation and social protection policies.

Question 63

What is the cycle of deprivation?

Answer 63

The cycle of deprivation refers to a series of interconnected problems that perpetuate poverty and social exclusion, making it difficult for individuals and communities to escape from their circumstances.

Key characteristics:
- The cycle includes factors such as unemployment, low income, poor education, inadequate housing, health issues, and crime.
- Children born into deprived environments often face limited access to quality education and resources, leading to poor academic performance and reduced job opportunities.
- Poor educational outcomes lead to low-paying jobs or unemployment, which in turn results in inadequate living conditions, further impacting health and well-being.
- Individuals in deprived areas may experience marginalization from social, economic, and political opportunities, reinforcing their disadvantaged status.

Stages of the cycle:
- Families in deprived areas often live in substandard conditions, which can affect health and stability.
- Schools in these areas may lack resources, leading to lower educational attainment.
- The combination of poor education and limited job opportunities results in high unemployment rates.
- Poor living conditions and limited access to healthcare contribute to health problems, further reducing employability and quality of life.
- High levels of deprivation are often associated with increased crime rates, which can deter investment and exacerbate social problems.

Management strategies:
- Formulate policies targeting poverty alleviation, education, and healthcare access.
- Direct funds to urban development projects and social welfare programs.
- Support the rights of deprived communities and provide essential services.
- Implement educational, health, and social programs in affected areas

Breaking the cycle of deprivation requires targeted interventions, including improved access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities, as well as community development initiatives.

Question 64

What are the geographic patterns of crime?

Answer 64

The geographic patterns of crime refer to the spatial distribution and trends of criminal activities across different areas. Understanding these patterns is crucial for law enforcement, urban planning, and crime prevention strategies.

Crime is not evenly distributed; certain areas (hotspots) experience higher crime rates. For instance, 14% of all crimes against persons were concentrated in just 4% of street segments in urban studies.
Most crimes are committed close to the offender’s residence. Studies show that:
- 25% of murder offenders commit their crimes within two blocks of home.
- 50% of violent victimizations occur within 1 mile of the victim’s home

Factors influences patterns of crime:
- Areas with low socioeconomic status, high transiency, and family disruption tend to have higher crime rates. This theory suggests that weakened community ties lead to increased crime.
- Poor urban infrastructure (e.g., inadequate street lighting, lack of security) contributes to higher crime rates in certain neighborhoods. Areas with high levels of deprivation often correlate with increased crime.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used to identify crime hotspots, aiding law enforcement in resource allocation and prevention strategies.

Management strategies:
- Engaging local communities in crime prevention efforts helps build trust and improve safety.
- Designing safer urban environments (e.g., improved lighting, open spaces) can reduce opportunities for crime.
- Addressing underlying social issues such as poverty and unemployment can mitigate crime rates over time.

Question 65

Case study for managing the impacts of urban social deprivation

Answer 65

Detroit Greenlight Project:
Launched in 2016, the Detroit Greenlight Project aims to reduce crime and improve community safety through a comprehensive approach. It was launched by the Detroit Police Department (DPD) in partnership with local businesses. Live footage from participating locations is transmitted to the DPD’s Real-Time Crime Center, allowing officers to monitor activities and respond quickly.

Key Features:
- Community Engagement: Involves residents in crime prevention strategies and neighborhood revitalization.
- Data-Driven: Utilizes crime data to identify hotspots and allocate resources effectively.
- Collaboration: Partnerships with local organizations, law enforcement, and community stakeholders.
- Started with 8 locations (gas stations) in 2016; expanded to 907 locations by 2022, including fast food restaurants, churches, and apartment complexes.

Impact:
- Reduction in violent crime rates in targeted neighborhoods.
- Increased community trust in law enforcement and improved public safety perceptions.
- Reported property crimes decreased by 27% after the first year of implementation
- 23% reduction in violent crime year-to-date (YTD) across all sites, and a 48% reduction at the original 8 sites compared to YTD 2015.

Question 66

Urban growth projections for 2050 including regional/continental patterns

Answer 66

Global:
Urban Population Increase: The global urban population is expected to rise from 55% in 2020 to 68% by 2050, equating to an additional 2.5 billion people living in urban areas.

Regional/continental:
- Asia and Africa: Approximately 90% of the urban population growth will occur in these continents. Countries like India, China, and Nigeria will account for 35% of the global urban population increase.
- India: Projected to add 416 million urban dwellers by 2050, becoming the most populous country with major cities like New Delhi expected to grow significantly.
- China: Anticipated to add 255 million urban residents, although urban growth may plateau in some areas due to aging populations and migration patterns.
- Nigeria: Expected to see an increase of 189 million urban residents, reflecting rapid urbanization driven by high birth rates and migration.

Question 67

Urban growth projections for 2050 trends of rural-urban migration

Answer 67

• Urban Population: The global urban population is projected to rise from 55% in 2020 to 68% by 2050, adding approximately 2.5 billion people to urban areas. About 90% of this urban growth will occur in Asia and Africa, with countries like India, China, and Nigeria accounting for 35% of the increase.

The number of megacities (cities with over 10 million inhabitants) is expected to rise from 44 in 2020 to 67 by 2050. Notable projections include:
- Delhi projected to become the largest megacity with nearly 47 million residents.
- Other significant cities include Shanghai, Mexico City, and São Paulo, each with populations around 22 million

Impacts of migration growth:
- Rapid urbanization will challenge housing, transportation, and basic services, particularly in low-income countries.
- Effective management policies are needed to ensure inclusive urban growth that addresses the needs of vulnerable populations, including access to housing, education, and healthcare

Question 68

Urban growth projections for 2050 trends of changing urban population sizes and structure

Answer 68

Population growth:
- By 2050, it is projected that 68% of the global population will live in urban areas, up from 55% today, adding approximately 2.5 billion people to cities.
- The number of megacities (cities with over 10 million inhabitants) is expected to increase from 44 in 2020 to 67 by 2050, with cities like Delhi and Lagos experiencing the most significant growth.

Demographic shifts:
- In many developed countries, urban populations are aging due to lower birth rates and longer life expectancy. This shift leads to a higher proportion of elderly residents, impacting healthcare and social services.
- Conversely, cities in developing regions often have younger populations, with higher birth rates and a significant influx of young migrants seeking opportunities.

Diversity and multiculturalism:
- Urban areas are becoming more ethnically and culturally diverse due to international migration and internal movement, leading to multicultural societies.
- This diversity can create both opportunities for cultural enrichment and challenges related to social cohesion and integration.

Question 69

What is a resilient city design?

Answer 69

An approach to urban planning that enhances a city’s ability to recover from shocks and stresses while maintaining functionality and sustainability. The objectives of this city design include:

• Strengthening infrastructure to resist external shocks (e.g., natural disasters).
• Ensuring alternative systems are available for critical services.
• Allowing urban systems to evolve in response to changing conditions.
• Engaging diverse communities in resilience-building efforts.

Question 70

What are some strategies to manage escalating climatic risks to urban areas?

Answer 70

Sustainable urban planning:
- Integrate climate change considerations into urban design to enhance resilience against extreme weather events.

Green Infrastructure:
- Develop green spaces, urban forests, and green roofs to mitigate urban heat islands, manage stormwater, and improve air quality.

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy:
- Promote the use of solar panels, wind turbines, and energy-efficient building designs to reduce carbon footprints and enhance energy security.

Sustainable Transportation Solutions:
- Invest in public transit, cycling, and pedestrian pathways to reduce reliance on private vehicles and lower greenhouse gas emissions.

Community Engagement and Education:
- Involve residents in planning processes and educate them about climate risks to ensure locally relevant and supported solutions.

Data and Technology Utilization:
- Leverage Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and climate modeling to inform decision-making and monitor urban climate risks effectively.

Integrated Policy Approaches:
- Foster collaboration among various sectors (health, transportation, environment) to create cohesive climate resilience strategies.

Financial Mechanisms:
- Mobilize public and private funding to support climate resilience initiatives and infrastructure improvements.

Disaster Risk Reduction:
- Implement early warning systems and emergency response plans to prepare for and mitigate the impacts of climate-related disasters.

Question 71

What are some strategies to manage escalating geopolitical risks to urban areas?

Answer 71

Risk Assessment and Scenario Planning:
- Conduct comprehensive assessments to identify potential geopolitical risks, including terrorism, social unrest, and resource scarcity.
- Use scenario planning to anticipate various geopolitical developments and their potential impacts on urban areas.

Enhance Security Measures:
Implement physical security enhancements, such as:
- Installing bollards and barriers around critical infrastructure to prevent vehicle attacks.
- Utilizing CCTV and other surveillance technologies for monitoring public spaces.

Infrastructure Resilience:
- Invest in resilient infrastructure that can withstand geopolitical shocks, including climate adaptation measures.
- Develop emergency response plans and evacuation procedures to prepare for potential crises.

Policy and Governance:
- Develop policies that address the root causes of geopolitical risks, such as economic inequality and social fragmentation.
- Strengthen urban governance frameworks to ensure effective risk management and resource allocation

Question 72

What does geopolitical risks include?

Answer 72

• Terrorist attack
• Protests against global movements such as migration
• Loss of economic power due to globalisation, such as deindustrialized cities in HICs

Question 73

What does climatic risks include?

Answer 73

• Flooding
• Heat Waves
• Storms (hurricanes)

Question 74

Case study for two detailed examples to illustrate possible strategies

Answer 74

New York City:
A comprehensive long-term plan focusing on growth, sustainability, resilience, and equity. Some background information is:
- Approximately 18% of NYC residents live below the poverty line.
- Over 8.4 million residents, with significant diversity and economic inequality.

There goals include:
- Lift 800,000 New Yorkers out of poverty by 2025.
- Reduce PM2.5 air pollution disparities across neighborhoods.
- Address climate change impacts on vulnerable populations.

Initiatives:
- 199 initiatives targeting waste management, transportation, and climate adaptation.

Impact:
- Integrates social justice with climate resilience, aiming to prevent displacement from homes and jobs.

Singapore:
A national strategy to leverage technology for urban management and improve the quality of life. Some background information is:
- Approximately 8,358 people per square kilometer, one of the highest globally.
- Over 47% of the city-state is green space, emphasizing urban sustainability.

There goals include:
- Enhance public services through data analytics and smart technologies.
- Promote sustainable urban living with green buildings and efficient public transport.

Initiatives:
- Projects include Smart Traffic Management and Smart Energy Management systems.

Impact:
- Aims to improve urban mobility, reduce congestion, and enhance environmental sustainability.

Question 75

What is an eco city design?

Answer 75

Eco city design refers to the planning and development of urban areas that prioritize environmental sustainability and resource efficiency. Some key charaecteristics include:
- Eco cities aim to meet the needs of the present without compromising future generations, focusing on renewable resources and minimizing waste.
- Unlike traditional cities that follow a linear model (resource input, waste output), eco cities utilize a circular metabolism, promoting recycling and resource reuse to create closed-loop systems.
- Incorporation of green spaces, parks, and urban forests to enhance biodiversity, improve air quality, and provide recreational areas for residents.

Question 76

What are some strategies to manage the urban ecological footprint in eco-city design?

Answer 76

Sustainable resource management:
- Design cities to rely on locally sourced materials and renewable energy to reduce transportation emissions and enhance self-sufficiency.

Green Infrastructure:
- Incorporate parks, green roofs, and urban gardens to improve air quality, enhance biodiversity, and provide recreational areas.
- Use permeable surfaces and rain gardens to manage stormwater and reduce runoff.

Energy Efficiency:
- Implement renewable energy sources (solar, wind) to power urban areas, aiming for zero-carbon emissions.
- Design buildings with high energy efficiency standards, utilizing passive solar design and sustainable materials.

Transportation Planning:
- Develop efficient public transportation networks to reduce reliance on private vehicles and lower carbon emissions.
- Create pedestrian-friendly urban layouts that encourage walking and cycling.

Waste Management:
- Implement comprehensive recycling and composting programs to minimize landfill waste.
- Encourage the reuse and recycling of materials within the urban system.

Community Engagement:
- Involve local communities in planning and decision-making to ensure that eco-city designs meet the needs of residents.
- Promote sustainability education to encourage environmentally responsible behaviors among residents.

Smart Technology Integration:
- Utilize technology for efficient resource management, such as smart grids and real-time monitoring of energy and water usage.

Question 77

Two detailed examples to illustrate possible environmental strategies

Answer 77

Masdar, UAE:
Masdar City is a pioneering sustainable urban development aimed at reducing carbon emissions and promoting renewable energy.

Key features of the city:
- Powered by a 10 MW solar power plant and rooftop solar panels, offsetting over 15,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions annually.
- Buildings designed to reduce energy and water consumption by at least 40% using low-carbon materials and advanced insulation.
- Aims for zero waste to landfills through comprehensive recycling and composting programs, including a project to upcycle organic waste into animal feed.
- Home to over 4,000 residents with a projected capacity of 50,000. Masdar has invested in over 40 countries to support global energy transitions.

Stockholm, Sweden:
Stockholm is recognized for its comprehensive environmental strategy aimed at achieving sustainability and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Key features of the city:
- The city has implemented extensive public transportation systems, including subways and buses, reducing reliance on cars.
- Over 85% of Stockholm’s heating comes from renewable sources, primarily waste heat and biofuels.
- The city promotes cycling with over 760 km of bike lanes, encouraging sustainable transport.
- Stockholm has reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 25% since 1990 while maintaining economic growth, aiming to become fossil fuel-free by 2040.

Question 78

What is a smart city design?

Answer 78

An urban area that uses information and communication technologies (ICT) and the Internet of Things (IoT) to manage resources and services efficiently.

Key features of the city include:
- Utilizes technology for data management, enhancing urban services like transportation, energy, and waste management.
- Upgrading current urban infrastructure with smart technologies, such as smart grids and intelligent transportation systems.

Question 79

Use of new technology to run city services and systems in smart city design including purpose-built settlements and retrofitting to older settlements

Answer 79

Internet of Things (IoT):
- The function of this connects devices and sensors throughout the city to collect and analyze data.
- An example is the smart streetlights that adjust brightness based on real-time conditions, leading to energy savings of up to 70% in cities like Oslo.

Smart Mobility:
- The function of this is it Enhances transportation systems through real-time data for traffic management and public transit.
- An example is Singapore’s Smart Mobility 2030 plan includes intelligent traffic systems and parking guidance to reduce congestion and improve commuter experiences.

Smart Energy Management:
- The function of this is it automates energy use in buildings and public spaces to increase efficiency.
- An example is smart grids that monitor energy consumption and optimize distribution, reducing carbon emissions

Purpose-Built Settlements:
- The function of this is urban areas specifically designed with smart technologies from inception, focusing on sustainability and efficiency.
- An example is development of entire neighborhoods with integrated smart systems for waste management, energy use, and transportation.

Retrofitting Older Settlements:
- Installation of sensors for monitoring traffic, air quality, and energy consumption, enabling better resource management.
- Utilizing collected data to optimize city services, such as waste management and public safety.

Question 80

Example how Masdar, UAE is a smart city

Answer 80

• Designed from the ground up to be sustainable, Masdar City incorporates renewable energy sources, such as solar power, and aims for a zero-carbon footprint.
• Features smart grids and energy-efficient buildings equipped with IoT devices that monitor energy consumption and optimize usage.
• Utilizes electric and autonomous vehicles to reduce emissions and enhance mobility within the city.

Question 81

Explain how Stockholm, Sweden is a smart city

Answer 81

• Stockholm integrates smart technologies into its existing urban fabric, enhancing services without extensive new construction.
• The city employs intelligent traffic systems that adjust traffic signals based on real-time congestion data, improving traffic flow and reducing emissions.
  -Stockholm uses smart waste bins equipped with sensors that notify collection services when they are full, optimizing waste collection routes and reducing operational costs.

Question 82

Explain the difference between land use and function

Answer 82

Land use refers to what is built on a site, e.g. a school, houses. Function refers to what activity is carried out at that land use, e.g. education, residential.