Global climate, vulnerability and responses

Question 1

Meaning of climate change

Answer 1

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in global or regional climate patterns, characterized by changes in average weather conditions such as temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns. It is primarily caused by human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, which release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat, leading to a gradual increase in the Earth’s average surface temperature, a phenomenon known as global warming. The consequences of climate change are far-reaching and affect various aspects of our planet’s systems.

Question 2

Meaning of hydrosphere

Answer 2

The hydrosphere is the total water on Earth, encompassing all oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, groundwater, and water vapor in the atmosphere. This definition is brief and captures the essential elements of the hydrosphere.

Question 3

Meaning of atmosphere

Answer 3

The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding Earth, composed mainly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), that protects life by filtering harmful solar radiation and regulating temperature. This definition is succinct and captures the essential aspects of the atmosphere.

Question 4

Meaning of biosphere

Answer 4

The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems, encompassing all living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) and their interactions with the environment, including land, water, and the atmosphere. This definition captures the essence of the biosphere in a clear and succinct manner.

Question 5

Water stored in ice, oceans and changing sea levels

Answer 5

Ice:
- Ice is melting at accelerated rates due to global warming.
-Rising global temperatures cause ice to melt faster than it can be replenished by snowfall.
- As ice melts, darker surfaces are exposed, absorbing more heat and leading to further melting.
- Warmer ocean waters contribute to melting ice shelves and glaciers from below.
- Between 2000 and 2019, glaciers lost about 267 billion tonnes of ice annually.
- Ice sheets in Greenland and the Antarctic are shrinking and snow cover is decreasing

Oceans:
- As temperature rises in oceans, the absorption of carbon dioxide decreases, and results in carbon being released leading to global warming.
- Oceans have absorbed about 25% of the carbon dioxide emissions produced by human activities. This absorption has slowed the progress of climate change
- As oceans warm, their capacity to absorb CO2 decreases.

Changing sea levels:
- Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets lost 6.4 trillion tonnes of ice (1992-2017). This ice loss raised global sea levels by 17.8mm.
- Glaciers contributed 27mm to sea level rise (1961-2016).
- As oceans warm, water expands, increasing volume contributing to sea levels rising.
- Glaciers account for 25-30% of observed sea level rise.
- Fastest sea level rise expected in southern US East Coast and Gulf Coast.

Question 6

Carbon stored in ice, oceans and the biosphere

Answer 6

Ice:
- Ice plays a crucial role in carbon storage, primarily through Permafrost as well as glaciers and ice sheets.
- Permafrost is frozen soil in Arctic regions that contains about 1400 petagrams of carbon. At low temperatures it prevents organic matter from decomposing, pausing the fast carbon cycle. Thawing permafrost could release significant amount of carbon into the atmosphere.
- Glaciers worldwide store approximately 6 petagrams of carbon, with most in the Antarctic Ice Sheet.
- Ice traps organic matter slowing its decomposition.

Oceans:
- Oceans are the largest carbon reservoirs.
- Oceans contain about 38,000 petagrams of carbon, 60 times more than the atmosphere.
- Warming oceans may reduce CO2 absorption.
- Ocean circulation moves carbon-rich water to deep sea.
- Phytoplankton absorb CO2 during photosynthesis.

Biosphere:
- The biosphere, particularly terrestrial ecosystems, is a significant carbon store.
- Forests and other plant life store carbon through photosynthesis.
- Approximately 560 petagrams of carbon are stored in trees and organic material.
- Soil contains up 1500 petagrams of carbon and is formed in organic matter and microorganisms.

Question 7

Who is most at risk for increased sea levels?

Answer 7

People who live close to the coastline. Over 40% of the world’s population lives within 100 km of a coastline, so there is an increased risk of flooding. This risk is particularly high in low-lying coastal areas such as the Netherlands, Bangladesh and the Maldives.

Question 8

What are the consequences of coastal flooding?

Answer 8

• Damage to infrastructure, homes and industry, leading to loss of livelihood
• Risk to human life, such as death from drowning
  salinisation of agricultural land, reducing its capacity to grow many types of crops
• Contamination of freshwater resources by salt water, including saline intrusion of groundwater resources: this would render fresh water too salty for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses
• Degradation of coastal ecosystems such as wetlands, estuaries, mangroves and beaches
• Damage to inland ecosystems, threatening wildlife.

Question 9

What are the two outcomes that the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) suggested that will occur by 2100`

Answer 9

• If greenhouse gas emissions are reduced and there is an increase in carbon dioxide absorption through forestation schemes the mean global temperature will only increase by 0.3 to 1.7°C.
• If high greenhouse gas emissions continue, temperatures could rise by 2.6 to 4.8°C.

Question 10

What will happen with a rise in temperature?

Answer 10

With a rise in temperature, more water will evaporate, resulting in some regions experiencing greater rainfall. However, this rainfall will not be distributed equally and some areas that are already water-stressed are likely to receive even less rainfall.

Question 11

What will increase in probability with increased temperatures?

Answer 11

• The annual amount of precipitation will increase in high altitudes, the equatorial Pacific and other already wet regions of the subtropics (wet subtropical regions typically have between 80 and 165 cm of rainfall per year compared to dry subtropical regions, which have between 30 and 90 cm of rainfall per year)
• The annual amount of precipitation will decrease in the mid-latitudes and dry regions of the subtropics
• Extreme weather events will be more frequent, longer in duration and more intense (e.g. heatwaves and rainstorms); this will result in more drought and floods.

Question 12

What is the general pattern with increased global temperatures?

Answer 12

• Thermal expansion of the oceans: water absorbs heat and expands
• Melting of snow and ice:
  
  • The glaciers of Mount Kilimanjaro in East Africa
    and the Andes in South America are retreating
  • Ice sheets in Greenland and the Antarctic are
    shrinking and snow cover is decreasing
  • Shipping routes are opening up, thus improving
    global communications.

Question 13

What does rising global temperatures affect besides raising sea levels?

Answer 13

Rising global temperatures not only raise sea levels but also change precipitation patterns. This is likely to affect (reduce) the quantity and quality of fresh water available. The availability of water could be influenced by the following factors:

• A reduction in precipitation in semi-arid and arid regions will reduce available water resources. This could be further exacerbated by higher temperatures, which increase evaporation rates. The frequency and intensity of drought conditions is expected to increase.
• A reduction in glacier or snow water storage will lead to reduced water resources downstream during spring and summer. Loss of glacial melt in the Andes Mountains is expected to have devastating effects in Peru, a country already considered to be the most water-stressed in South America. The reduction in river flow will affect both water resources and production of hydroelectric power.

Question 14

How else is the balance on Earth possible?

Answer 14

In addition to the four major spheres there are a number of global cycles that maintain balance and make life on Earth possible. For example, the hydrological cycle moves water through the hydrosphere. In the context of global climate change the carbon cycle is very important, especially when considering the changes in carbon storage (carbon sinks) in the hydrosphere, biosphere and geosphere.

A major change in carbon sinks is happening in the geosphere. The geosphere stores the majority of the Earth’s carbon: some 80% is in limestone and other calcium carbonate-based rocks. The rest is in fossil fuels. Carbon stays locked up in rocks for millions of years under natural conditions. However, humans extract fossil fuels to support our lifestyles and its combustion releases vast amounts of carbon. This has long been seen as the main cause of global climate change.

Question 15

What sources do oceans gain the carbon dioxide from?

Answer 15

• The oceans absorb 93% of the atmospheric carbon and are the second largest sink in the carbon cycle.
• Carbon dioxide is gained from the atmosphere as it dissolves at the air–water interface and is converted into carbonates.
• Other parts of the hydrosphere contribute carbon dioxide as rivers flow into the ocean laden with dissolved organic carbon.
• The biosphere also contributes carbon dioxide: plants convert carbon dioxide into organic carbon through photosynthesis, which then moves through food chains or into deep ocean sediments as organisms die and sink to the bottom. The biosphere also converts dissolved carbon into calcium carbonate for shells and other hard bony structures in sea creatures.

Question 16

How do human actions interfere with the mechanism of oceanic absorption of CO2?

Answer 16

The problem is that human actions are interfering with this mechanism:

• The dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide into the oceans is temperature-dependent. It is most rapid in the polar regions where the water is cooler. So, warming of the oceans reduces the speed at which this exchange is taking place.
• Warm water holds less gas so warmer oceans means that less carbon dioxide can be stored in the oceanic sink.
• Acid deposition (acid rain) and other pollutants are changing the chemical composition of the oceans. This damages the fragile ecosystems that cycle the carbon, limiting the oceans’ ability to absorb atmospheric carbon.
• Higher ocean temperatures are interfering with the thermohaline circulation, thus reducing the amount of carbon that is transferred into deep ocean sediments. This then reduces oceanic carbon absorption into surface layers.

Question 17

Incidence with severity of extreme weather events, including drought

Answer 17

Incidents of extreme weather events:
- Over the last century droughts have increased by 233% in certain regions.
- Climate change models project that by the late 21st century, the land area and population facing extreme droughts could more than double globally.
- In the Horn of Africa, the 2022 March-to-May season saw the lowest rainfall in six decades.
- For hurricanes there’s been an increase in the proportion of Category 4 and 5 storms globally. The North Atlantic has seen a 13% increase in hurricane intensity since the 1980s.

Why are extreme weather events occurring more often:
- Droughts are occurring more often because a warmer atmosphere can hold more moisture, increasing the potential for both extreme precipitation and drought.
- Warmer ocean temperatures provide more energy for hurricanes and tropical storms, potentially increasing their intensity.
- Climate change is altering global atmospheric circulation patterns, affecting where and how much precipitation falls.

Question 18

Spatial changes in biomes

Answer 18

Biomes:
- Biomes are large-scale ecological communities characterized by dominant vegetation types and climatic conditions.
- Biomes are Shifting poleward at rates of 10-20 km per decade
- Biomes are moving to higher elevations at 1-3 meters per year
- Expansion of arid biomes and contraction of tundra
- For example the Sahara Desert expanding southward at ~10 km per year since 1950. 20% decrease in vegetation cover over the past 50 years
- Another example is Boreal Forests. Northward shift of 10-20 km per decade and potential 50% loss of current boreal forest by 2100.

Question 19

Changes to agriculture, including crop yields, limits of cultivation and soil erosion

Answer 19

Agriculture:
- Climate change is altering agricultural practices globally
- Shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns affect crop choices and farming methods
- In the North American prairies, cereal farming is becoming more challenging due to increased drought frequency

Crop yields:
- Global crop yields are affected by changing climate conditions
- IPCC reports that climate change has already reduced global yields of maize and wheat by 1-2% per decade since 19813
- Coffee production in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and El Salvador is expected to decrease by more than 40% due to climate change

Limits of cultivation:
- Climate change is shifting the geographical limits of crop cultivation
- Some areas become unsuitable for traditional crops, while new regions open up
- Grapevine cultivation is becoming less suitable in many traditional wine-producing regions of Europe, USA, and Australia, but may benefit areas like British Columbia, Canada
- Russia and Canada may see an increase in arable land due to warming temperatures

Soil erosion:
- Climate change can accelerate soil erosion through increased rainfall intensity and frequency of extreme weather events
- In arid regions, wind erosion may increase due to prolonged droughts
- In the Sahel region of Africa, desertification is advancing, reducing arable land and increasing soil erosion
- The IPCC notes that the future of soil erosion due to climate change is uncertain and varies greatly by region3

Question 20

Impacts of climate change on people

Answer 20

Climate change affects people in various ways:

Health hazards:
- Increased heat-related illnesses and deaths
- Spread of vector-borne diseases (e.g., malaria, dengue)
- Respiratory problems due to air pollution and wildfires

Migration:
- Climate refugees fleeing sea-level rise, drought, or extreme weather
- Displacement from coastal areas and low-lying islands

Food and water security:
- Changes in crop yields and agricultural productivity
- Water scarcity in drought-prone regions

Economic impacts:
- Damage to infrastructure from extreme weather events
- Changes in tourism patterns
- Shifts in job markets (e.g., decline in climate-sensitive industries)

Social inequalities:
- Disproportionate effects on vulnerable populations (e.g., elderly, poor)
- Exacerbation of existing social and economic disparities

Ocean transport route:
- Opening of new shipping lanes in the Arctic
- Potential disruption of established maritime trade routes

Question 21

Impacts of climate change on places

Answer 21

Climate change affects places in various ways:

Coastal areas:
- Sea level rise causing flooding and erosion
- Increased storm surge risks
- Saltwater intrusion into freshwater systems

Polar regions:
- Melting ice caps and glaciers
- Thawing permafrost
- Altered ecosystems and wildlife habitats

Urban areas:
- Heat island effect intensification
- Increased flooding risks
- Strain on infrastructure

Agricultural regions:
- Shifting crop yields and cultivation limits
- Changes in growing seasons
- Increased pest and disease prevalence

Mountainous areas:
- Glacier retreat
- Altered snowpack and water availability
- Increased landslide risks

Island nations:
- Existential threat from sea level rise
- Coastal erosion and habitat loss
- Impacts on tourism-based economies

Question 22

Spatial changes in habitats

Answer 22

Changes in habitats are caused by:
- Caused by both natural processes and human activities
- Can occur at various scales, from local to global
- Often linked to climate change and land use changes

Changes include:
- Deforestation leading to fragmentation of rainforest habitats
- Urban expansion encroaching on natural ecosystems
- Coastal erosion altering shoreline habitats

Impacts of these changes are:
- Biodiversity loss
- Changes in species distribution and migration patterns
- Disruption of ecosystem services

Ways spatial change in habitats can be measured:
- Remote sensing and satellite imagery
- Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
- Field surveys and ecological monitoring

Case study:
- Tacheng Region, China
- 2000-2020
- Habitat Quality Index:
- Highest value in 2010: 0.577 (on a scale of 0-1)
- Slight decrease after 2010
- Significantly influenced by land use type
conversion and precipitation

Question 23

Spatial changes in migration patterns

Answer 23

Changes in migration patterns are caused by:
- Climate change impacts (e.g., sea-level rise, extreme weather events)
- Economic factors (e.g., job opportunities, urbanization)
- Political instability and conflicts
- Environmental degradation
- Technological advancements facilitating movement

Examples of changes:
- Shift from rural to urban areas within countries
- Increased migration from coastal areas to inland regions
- Changes in seasonal migration patterns due to altered climate conditions
- Emergence of new migration routes in response to environmental pressures
- Increased cross-border migration due to climate-related events

Impacts of these changes:
- Demographic shifts in both origin and destination areas
- Pressure on urban infrastructure and services
- Changes in labor markets and economic structures
- Cultural and social transformations in receiving areas
- Environmental stress in areas receiving migrants

Ways of spatial changes in migration patterns can be measured:
- Census data and population registers
- Satellite imagery and remote sensing for tracking population movements
- Surveys and questionnaires
- Mobile phone data and social media analytics
- Border crossing and visa statistics

Case study:
- Focus on sea-level rise (SLR) projections impacting migration patterns in the Mediterranean region by 2100
- Up to 20 million internal migrants due to SLR without adaptation measures
- Approximately 5 million people may migrate autonomously in the latter half of the century, primarily from the Nile delta.

Question 24

List the disparities in exposure to climate change risk and vulnerability as well as risk vulnerability

Answer 24

• variations in people’s location
• people’s wealth

social differences:
- people’s age
- people’s gender
- people’s education

Question 25

How does variations in people’s location effect people vulnerability and risk perception to climate change?

Answer 25

Causes of Variations
- Geographic exposure to climate hazards
- Urban vs. rural settings
- Socioeconomic differences between regions
- Access to information and education
- Cultural and political contexts

Examples of Variations
- Urban-Rural divide:
- Urban residents generally show higher awareness
of climate change
- Rural residents often have higher place
attachment but lower perceived threat
- Coastal vs. inland areas:
- Coastal communities face more immediate risks
from sea-level rise and storms
- Inland areas may experience different threats like
droughts or wildfires
- Developed vs. developing countries:
- Residents of developed countries often have
higher awareness but may feel less personally
vulnerable
- People in developing countries may be more
directly impacted but have less access to
information

Impacts of Location on Vulnerability and Risk Perception
- Awareness: Urban residents tend to have higher climate change awareness
- Experience: Direct experience with climate impacts - increases risk perception
- Resilience: Rural communities may have higher resilience due to closer relationship with nature
- Adaptive capacity: Varies greatly based on local resources and infrastructure

Measurement Methods:
- Surveys and questionnaires
- Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis
- Vulnerability assessments
- Socioeconomic indicators
- Climate impact modeling

Case Study:
- Climate Change Risk Perception in Three Western U.S. Cities
- Study of Denver, Las Vegas, and Phoenix metropolitan areas
- 51.7% of residents were very to extremely certain climate change would impact their family
- 58.7% were concerned about impacts on their town or city
Highest perceived risks:
- Droughts (69.7% expected large to extremely large
negative impacts)
- Heatwaves (71.7% expected large to extremely
large negative impacts)
- This case study demonstrates how location-specific factors (e.g., arid climate) influence risk perceptions in different urban areas.

Question 26

How does variations in people’s wealth effect people vulnerability and risk perception to climate change?

Answer 26

Causes of Wealth-Based Vulnerability Differences:
- Unequal distribution of resources and adaptive capacity
- Existing structural and social inequalities
- Geographic and sectoral distribution of economic activity
- Access to information, technology, and education

Examples of Wealth-Based Vulnerability Differences:
- Exposure to climate risks:
- Low-income populations face higher risks due to
living in more vulnerable areas
- Wealthier individuals often have more resources
to avoid high-risk zones
- Ability to cope and recover:
- Poorer households have fewer financial resources
to respond and adapt to climate shocks
- Wealthy individuals have better access to
insurance and recovery mechanisms
- Sectoral vulnerabilities:
- Low-income groups are more likely to depend on
climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture
- Access to adaptation measures:
- Wealthier individuals can invest in climate-
resilient technologies and infrastructure

Impacts of Wealth Disparities on Climate Vulnerability:
- Disproportionate losses: Climate shocks cause greater loss of income and wealth for lower-income groups
- Reduced adaptive capacity: Poorer households have limited ability to invest in adaptation measures
Increased inequality: Climate change tends to exacerbate existing wealth inequalities
- Poverty traps: Climate impacts can push vulnerable populations into long-term poverty

Measurement Methods:
- Economic impact analysis
- Vulnerability assessments
- Household surveys and socioeconomic indicators
- Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis

Case Study:
- Climate Risk and Wealth Inequality in the UK
- A study using local projections (LPs) method found:
- Climate risk shocks lead to an increase in wealth
inequality in the longer term
- Evidence of heterogeneous responses between
high- and low-climate risk regimes
- Disproportionate increased burden on
households already experiencing poverty,
particularly in high-climate risk areas

Question 27

How does variations in people’s age effect people vulnerability and risk perception to climate change?

Answer 27

Causes of Age-Based Vulnerability Differences:
- Physiological changes with aging
- Prevalence of pre-existing health conditions
- Reduced mobility and independence
- Social and economic factors

Examples of Age-Based Vulnerability Differences
- Heat sensitivity:
- Older adults have reduced ability to regulate body
temperature
- They are more susceptible to heat-related illnesses
and death
- Respiratory issues:
- Older people are more vulnerable to air pollution
and respiratory diseases
- Climate change can exacerbate air quality issues
Extreme weather events:
- Limited mobility makes it harder for older adults
to evacuate or seek safety
- They may struggle with power outages affecting
medical equipment
- Cognitive impacts:
- Long-term exposure to air pollution is linked to
faster cognitive decline in older adults
- Climate-related stress can worsen existing

Impacts of Age on Climate Vulnerability:
- Increased mortality: Heat-related deaths among people 65+ have almost doubled globally in recent decades
- Higher morbidity: Older adults face greater risks of cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal diseases due to climate impacts
- Mental health effects: Extreme weather events can cause emotional trauma, especially for those with cognitive disabilities
- Disrupted care: Climate events can interrupt medical care and access to medications

Measurement Methods:
- Mortality and morbidity statistics by age group
- Vulnerability assessments considering age factors
- Surveys on climate risk perception among different age groups
- Analysis of health records in relation to climate events

Statistics on Age-Based Climate Vulnerability:
- In the past two decades, heat-related deaths among people aged 65 and above have almost doubled globally, reaching approximately 300,000 deaths in 2018
- The 2022 European summer resulted in 9,226 heat-related deaths among people aged 65-79 years, with a significant increase to 36,848 deaths for those aged 80 and over
- Almost 138 million people aged over 60 (close to 14% of the global over-60 age group) are already exposed to climate risks
- Heat-related mortality among older adults (aged 65 and over) has increased by 53.7% in recent decades
- A quarter of the 6.7 million annual deaths due to air pollution occur in people over the age of 65

Question 28

How does variations in people’s gender effect people vulnerability and risk perception to climate change?

Answer 28

Causes of Gender-Based Vulnerability Differences
- Socially constructed roles and responsibilities
- Unequal access to resources and decision-making power
- Existing structural and social inequalities
- Cultural and religious norms

Examples of Gender-Based Vulnerability Differences
- Workload and responsibilities:
- Women often have increased workloads due to
climate impacts (e.g., traveling farther to collect
water)
- Women are typically responsible for household
care, limiting their mobility during disasters
- Access to resources:
- Women often have limited access to land, credit,
and technology
- Men generally have more control over agricultural
resources and decision-making
- Health impacts:
- Women face higher risks of malnutrition and
health
issues during climate-related food shortages
- Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to
climate-related health risks
- Economic vulnerability:
- Women are more likely to work in climate-
sensitive sectors like agriculture
- Women often have fewer alternative livelihood
options

Impacts of Gender on Climate Vulnerability and Risk Perception:
- Mortality rates: Women and girls are 14 times more likely than men to die during a climate-related disaster
- Displacement: 80% of people displaced by climate change are women
- Adaptive capacity: Women often have fewer resources and opportunities to adapt to climate change
- Risk perception: Gender roles can influence how climate risks are perceived and prioritized

Measurement Methods:
- Gender-disaggregated data collection
- Vulnerability assessments considering gender factors
- Surveys on climate risk perception among different genders
- Analysis of gender-specific impacts in climate-related events

Statistics on Gender-Based Climate Vulnerability:
- Women earn 24% less than men globally and hold only 25% of administrative and managerial positions in the business world
- 32% of businesses have no women in senior management positions
- In the 2004 Asian tsunami, 70% of the victims were women
- During Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar (2008), 61% of the fatalities were females

Case Study:
- Gender Differences in Climate Change Perception and Adaptation in Nigeria
- A study comparing Kwara and Nassarawa States in Nigeria found:
- Men and women perceived climate change
differently, with varying observations of changes
in temperature and precipitation
- Gender played a significant role in the adoption of
adaptation practices in agriculture
- Males often had more access to resources and
decision-making power in farming as heads of
households
- There is a need for gender-sensitive approaches
to adaptation planning and implementation

Question 29

How does variations in people’s education effect people vulnerability to climate change?

Answer 29

Causes of Education-Based Vulnerability Differences:
- Access to information and understanding of climate science
- Ability to interpret and respond to climate risks
- Development of problem-solving and adaptive skills
- Socioeconomic opportunities linked to education level

Examples of Education-Based Vulnerability Differences:
- Climate awareness:
- Higher education levels are associated with
greater awareness of climate change causes and
impacts
- Less educated populations may have limited
understanding of long-term climate risks
- Adaptive capacity:
- Better-educated individuals often have more
resources and skills to implement adaptation
strategies
- Lower education levels may limit access to
climate-resilient technologies and practices
- Economic resilience:
- Higher education typically leads to more diverse
livelihood options, reducing vulnerability to
climate-sensitive sectors
- Less educated individuals may be more
dependent on climate-vulnerable occupations like
subsistence agriculture
- Risk perception:
- Education influences how people perceive and
prioritize climate risks
- Higher education levels are often associated with
greater concern for long-term environmental
issues

Impacts of Education on Climate Vulnerability:
- Poverty reduction: Education provides a pathway out of poverty, reducing overall vulnerability to climate impacts
- Adaptive skills: Better education equips people with problem-solving skills crucial for climate adaptation
Informed decision-making: Higher education levels enable better understanding and use of climate information
- Intergenerational effects: Educated parents are more likely to prioritize their children’s education, creating a cycle of reduced vulnerability

Measurement Methods:
- Surveys on climate knowledge and risk perception across education levels
- Analysis of adaptation strategies adopted by different education groups
- Correlation studies between education levels and climate vulnerability indicators
- Longitudinal studies on education’s impact on climate resilience

Statistics and Case Studies:
- UNESCO reports that if all adults completed secondary education, we could cut the global poverty rate by more than half, significantly reducing climate vulnerability
- A study in the Philippines showed that education was a key factor in reducing vulnerability to climate-related disasters like Typhoon Haiyan
- In Brazil, students in the hottest 10% of municipalities lost about 1% of learning per year due to increasing heat exposure, potentially leading to 0.66-1.5 years of lost learning due to rising temperatures

Importance of Climate Change Education:
- Climate change education is critical for adaptation and resilience, as highlighted by UNDP and UNITAR
- Many countries are asking for help to refocus their education systems towards climate change action
- Small investments in climate education planning can unlock much larger financing for adaptation initiatives

Question 30

Two detailed examples on societies for climate change vulnerability

Answer 30

Bangladesh:
- Bangladesh (Asia) is a low-lying country located on the Ganges delta. The majority of the country is less than 12 m above sea level. It is thus very prone to flooding due to rises in sea level and the storm surges that funnel through the Bay of Bengal. The risks to this country include:
- rising sea levels (1 m) could reduce land area by
10%
- increased rainfall and more cyclones
- soil degradation, erosion, deforestation and
- increased risk of earthquakes due to
destabilisation of tectonic faults
- food and water security reduced
- loss of shelter and deterioration in health
standards.

UK:
- London faces a threat of flooding caused by storm surges driven by depressions into the Thames Estuary from the North Sea. The last serious event was in 1953 when 300 people died. The UK’s Environment Agency believes there remains a one-in-a-thousand chance of London being flooded in any given year, owing to the limit of the protection offered since 1984 by the Thames Barrier.
- Closing the barrier seals off part of the upper Thames from the sea and unusually high sides that might push seawater into central London. When not in use, the six rising fates rest out of sight on the riverbed, allowing free passage of river traffic through the openings between the piers.
- However, climate change may mean that the risk of the barrier failing is growing because of (1) global eustatic sea-level rise (mainly because of thermal expansion) and (2) more powerful storms that generate high tides, also known as strom surges. By 2030, either a new US 16$ bullion flood barrier or a US 30$ billion tidal barrage may need to be built. The high cost of defending this city appears to be justifiable when risk and vulnerability are examined in detail:
- 8 million people live in London, around 1 million
of whom (in half a million homes) are at direct risk
of flooding. Elderly or disabled floodplain
residents are especially vulnerable to a sudden-
onset flood event
- If the Thames did burst its banks in central
London due to tidal surge , Westminster (where
the UK Government is based) would be under 2
metres of water, 16 hospitals and 400 schools
would be flooded, 68 underground railway
stations would be drowned utterly

Question 31

List government-led adaptation and mitigation strategies for global climate change

Answer 31

• global geopolitical efforts recognising that the sources of greenhouse gas emissions may be spatially distant from the countries most impacted
• carbon emissions offsetting and trading
• technology including geo-engineering

Question 32

Explain global geopolitical efforts recognising that the sources of greenhouse gas emissions may be spatially distant from the countries most impacted

Answer 32

Global geopolitical efforts to address climate change recognize that greenhouse gas emissions and their impacts are often spatially disconnected. This creates a complex challenge that requires international cooperation and coordinated action. Here’s an overview of how the global community is addressing this issue:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):
- The UNFCCC is the primary international platform for climate action:
- It brings together 197 Parties to address the global
challenge of climate change.
- The Conference of the Parties (COP) is held
annually to negotiate and implement climate
solutions.
- Paris Agreement:
- Adopted in 2015, the Paris Agreement is a
landmark global climate accord:
- It aims to limit global temperature increase to well
below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, while
pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.
- Countries submit Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) outlining their climate action
plans.

International Climate Finance
- Recognizing the disparity between emitters and those most affected:
- The EU, its Member States, and the European
Investment Bank are the largest contributors of
public climate finance to developing economies.
- This financial support helps vulnerable countries
mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts.

Key Approaches:
- Emissions Trading: e.g., Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
- Differentiated Responsibilities: Developed countries lead in reductions
- Adaptation Support: Assisting vulnerable nations

Principles:
- Recognition of spatial disconnect between emitters and impacted regions
- International cooperation and coordinated action
- Support for developing countries in mitigation and adaptation

Challenges:
- Balancing responsibilities between developed and developing nations
- Ensuring effective implementation of global agreements
- Addressing climate justice and equity issues

Question 33

Explain how carbon emissions offsetting and trading is a strategy to combat climate change

Answer 33

Meanings:
- Carbon offsetting: Compensating for emissions by funding projects that reduce or remove CO2 elsewhere
- Carbon trading: Buying and selling credits representing emission reductions

Key Mechanisms:
- Voluntary Carbon Market (VCM)
- A decentralized market where private actors
voluntarily buy and sell carbon credits representing greenhouse gas reductions or removals.
- Compliance schemes (e.g., Kyoto Protocol, EU Emissions Trading System)
- Government-regulated systems (e.g., EU
Emissions Trading System) that set mandatory
emission reduction targets for certain industries.

Strategies:
- Emissions reduction at source
- Purchase of carbon credits
- Investment in offset projects (e.g., reforestation, renewable energy)

Benefits:
- Allows companies to reach net-zero goals
- Supports development of emission reduction technologies
- Provides flexibility in meeting climate targets

Challenges:
- Ensuring additionality of offset projects
- Verifying actual emission reductions
- Balancing offsetting with direct emission reductions

Best Practices:
- Use offsetting as part of a comprehensive climate strategy
- Prioritize high-quality, verified offset projects
- Combine with science-based emission reduction targets

Impact:
- Accelerates global decarbonization efforts
- Channels finance to sustainable development projects
- Helps bridge the gap to a low-carbon economy

Question 34

Explain how technologies including geo-engineering is a strategy to combat climate change

Answer 34

Key Approaches:
- Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)
- Solar Radiation Management (SRM)

CDR Technologies:
- Direct Air Capture (DAC): Removes CO2 directly from the atmosphere
- Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS): Combines biomass energy with CO2 capture
- Enhanced Weathering: Accelerates natural CO2 absorption by rocks

SRM Technologies:
- Stratospheric Aerosol Injection: Reflects sunlight using particles in the upper atmosphere
- Marine Cloud Brightening: Increases cloud reflectivity over oceans
- Space-Based Reflectors: Deflects sunlight using orbital mirrors

Benefits:
- Potential for rapid climate impact
- Addresses residual emissions not eliminated by mitigation efforts

Challenges:
- Uncertain long-term effects on global ecosystems
- Potential for uneven regional impacts
- Ethical concerns about altering the planet’s systems

Current Status:
- Mostly theoretical with limited field testing
- Increasing research interest and funding
- Controversial within scientific and policy communities

Governance Issues:
- Lack of international regulatory framework
- Concerns about unilateral deployment

Complementary Role:
- Viewed as a supplement to, not replacement for, emissions reduction
- Part of a broader climate action strategy including mitigation and adaptation

Question 35

Explain civil society and corporate strategies to address climate change

Answer 35

Corporate Strategies:
- Science-based emissions reduction targets
- Sustainability investments
- Carbon offsetting
- Business model transformation
- Climate policy engagement
- Energy efficiency and renewable adoption

Civil Society Strategies:
- Advocacy and awareness campaigns
- Legal action
- Grassroots mobilization
- Research and policy development
- Partnerships and collaborations
- Education and capacity building
- Monitoring and accountability

Key Points:
- Focus on systemic change and transformative actions
- Growing emphasis on climate justice and just transition
- Increasing collaboration between sectors
- Recognition of need for both mitigation and adaptation

Challenges:
- Ensuring genuine action beyond greenwashing
- Balancing short-term costs with long-term benefits
- Overcoming political and economic barriers

Impact:
- Driving policy changes at local and global levels
- Accelerating low-carbon technology adoption
- Shifting public opinion and consumer behavior

Examples:
- Climate change litigation has been increasing since 2015, with cases filed in various countries including Pakistan, the Netherlands, India, and South Africa.
- In the Netherlands, around 900 citizens joined with NGO Urgenda to successfully hold the government accountable for climate action based on constitutional duty.
- The WHO Civil Society Working Group conducts research on climate and health, publishing papers to inform policy.

Question 36

Case study of the response to climate change in one country focusing on the actions of
non-governmental stakeholders

Answer 36

Goalbari:
- floating gardens and raised homes
- Goalbari is an agricultural village just outside of Dhaka.
- Annual floods brought by the monsoon deposit a rich layer of alluvial soil on the fields.
- Frequency and intensity of flooding has increased and earth embankments mean that the area is waterlogged for half the year. This disrupts agriculture, transport links and basic services (e.g. health care, drinking water)

A local women’s cooperative has successfully addressed the issues bought by the floods:

• The village has a collective and their savings are used to provide small loans to the women in the village.
• Loans are used to buy assets to improve future income (e.g. livestock).
  Strategies to adapt to the floods include:
  
  • houses were raised 1.2 m above the floodwaters
  • floating beds of hyacinths (baira) are used as a
  • base on which to grow vegetables: the beds rise
    and fall with the floodwaters.
    Long-term solutions are needed to:
• make sure children can get to school during the floods
• improve access to other services such as drinking
  water and health care
• diversify the economic base so that families are not
  so dependent on farming
• address other non-climate-change-related
  development issues.
  NGOs active in this project are:
• Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies (BCAS)
• Christian Commission for Development in Bangladesh (CCDB)
• Norwegian Church Aid
• The World Bank has also invested significant amounts of money in climate change mitigation and adaptation in Bangladesh.

Question 37

What is terrestrial albedo?

Answer 37

Terrestrial albedo refers to the reflectivity of the Earth’s surface. It is a measure of how much solar radiation is reflected back into space by the planet’s surface, expressed as a percentage or a fraction of the total incoming solar radiation.

Albedo is measured on a scale from 0 to 1, where 0 represents a surface that absorbs all incoming radiation (like a black body), and 1 represents a surface that reflects all incoming radiation.

Different surfaces on Earth have different albedo values:
- Fresh snow has a high albedo (0.80-0.90)
- Forests have a lower albedo (0.08-0.15)
- Water bodies have varying albedo depending on the angle of sunlight (0.02-0.10)

Albedo plays a crucial role in Earth’s energy balance and climate:
- Higher albedo surfaces reflect more solar radiation, leading to cooling
- Lower albedo surfaces absorb more solar radiation, leading to warming

Changes in albedo can create feedback loops in the climate system. For example, as global temperatures rise and ice melts, the exposed darker surfaces absorb more heat, further accelerating warming.

Human activities can alter surface albedo through land-use changes, urbanization, and deforestation, potentially impacting local and global climate patterns.

Question 38

How does climate change effect migratory animals?

Answer 38

Changes in migration patterns:
- Many species are altering the timing of their migrations. For example, some birds are migrating and breeding earlier in response to warmer spring temperatures.
- Species are moving their ranges poleward or to higher elevations as temperatures increase. This includes birds, mammals, and marine species.
- Some animals are changing their traditional migration paths. For instance, some European birds now winter in Britain instead of migrating further south.

Habitat and resource availability:
- Rising sea levels and changing precipitation patterns are reducing suitable habitats, particularly affecting species that rely on coastal areas or specific ecosystems.
- Changes in temperature and precipitation are altering the distribution and abundance of prey species, impacting food availability for migratory animals.

Population of species:
- Climate-related changes are negatively affecting the survival rates and reproductive success of many migratory species.
- Some species, like certain migratory waders, are facing significant population declines due to climate change impacts.

Ecosystem disruption:
- Changes in migration timing can lead to misalignments between animals and their food sources or breeding conditions.
- Human responses to climate change, such as dam construction, can create new barriers to migration.

Question 39

How does climate change affect biomes?

Answer 39

Climate change is causing the geographical boundaries of biomes to shift, typically moving poleward or to higher elevations as temperatures increase. This leads to:
- Expansion of some biomes, like tropical forests, into areas previously occupied by other biomes.
- Contraction of other biomes, such as tundra, which are losing ground to expanding boreal forests.

As temperatures and precipitation patterns change, the plant and animal species that can thrive in a given area are also changing:
- Some species are migrating to new areas with more suitable climates.
- Other species are facing population declines or local extinctions if they cannot adapt or move quickly enough.

Specific examples:
Boreal Forests:
- Experiencing more frequent and severe wildfires.
- Facing increased insect outbreaks due to warmer temperatures.
Desserts:
- Some areas are experiencing expansion due to increased aridity.
- Changes in precipitation patterns are affecting desert plant and animal communities.

Question 40

How do sea levels change as a result of global warming?

Answer 40

The melting of land-based ice, including glaciers and ice sheets in places like Greenland and Antarctica, adds water to the oceans. This is now the dominant contributor to sea level rise:
- Global average sea level has risen (21–24 centimeters) since 1880.
- The rate of sea level rise has accelerated in recent decades. From 2006-2015, sea levels rose at 2.5 times the average rate of the 20th century.

As ocean temperatures increase due to global warming, seawater expands in volume. This thermal expansion is responsible for about one-third of observed sea level rise.

Question 41

How does climate change effect communities and natural systems?

Answer 41

paragraph 1:
- health impacts affecting human communities
- Increased heat-related illnesses
- Spread of vector-borne diseases
- Respiratory problems due to air pollution
- During the 2003 European heatwave, approximately 70,000 excess deaths were recorded, with many attributed to heat stress, particularly among the elderly and those with pre-existing health conditions.
- In regions experiencing more frequent wildfires due to climate change, such as California, there has been an increase in emergency room visits for respiratory issues during fire seasons because of air pollution.

paragraph 2:
- economic consequences
- Agricultural disruptions
- Damage to infrastructure from extreme weather
- Shifts in tourism patterns
- The 2012 drought in the U.S. Midwest led to significant corn and soybean crop failures, resulting in economic losses exceeding $30 billion.
Ski resorts in the Alps have experienced shorter snow seasons and reduced snow cover, leading to economic losses and forcing some lower-altitude resorts to diversify their offerings or close.

paragraph 3:
- biodiversity loss
- Species extinctions
- Habitat destruction
- Ecosystem imbalances
- The Great Barrier Reef has experienced multiple mass coral bleaching events since 1998 due to rising ocean temperatures, leading to widespread coral death and habitat loss for numerous marine species.
- In the Arctic, earlier spring ice melt is causing a mismatch between the breeding cycles of migratory birds and the peak abundance of their insect prey, potentially leading to population declines.