Updated some glacier stuff

Question 1

Which one of the 4 is the only that it isn’t continuous permafrost?

Answer 1

Open Pingo (closed, ice wedges and patterned ground are all formed in continuous layers of permafrost.

Question 2

Open Pingo -

Answer 2

DC
Freely available groundwater is drawn towards the expanding ice core so the pingo grows from the core below and forms a dome shape from being near the surface
Caused by artesian pressure in the Talik (area of unfrozen ground below the permafrost)

Question 3

Closed Pingo -

Answer 3

CP
Form from downward growth of the permafrost, on the site of small lakes the groundwater becomes trapped by freezing above the permafrost this subsequently causes freezing and pushed the overlying sediments into a pingo form.

Question 4

Ice wedges polygons -

Answer 4

CP
During summer months water enter cracks in the ground and during the winter they force the cracks to widen from freeze thaw. The soil expand in the cracks.
20-30m wide

Question 5

Patterned ground -

Answer 5

CP
Resulting from frost heave and action push where it pushes sediments to the surface. Frost heave causes them to migrate outwards and frost push pushes them upwards.
Larger sediments roll out to the outside of the pattern leaving finer sediments in the middle as the larger ones move through solifluction.
Usually less than 10m across.

Question 6

Loess - what?!

Answer 6

Many periglacial areas are considered of extreme aridity as most of the water is frozen and not available for growth (permafrost = permanently frozen for more than 2 years) Large amounts of material are redeposited from its origin.

Question 7

Pleistocene -

Answer 7

2.6 mill to 12,000 years ago.
Loch Lominand Stadial where glaciers grew and re-grew in the Scottish highlands due to many glacial and interglacial periods.

Question 8

Holocene -

Answer 8

12,000 years ago to present day, -1 degrees saw British rivers such as the Thames freeze.

Question 9

Milankovitch cycles -

Answer 9

Eccentricity -100,000 - Changes from more circular to elliptical changes amount of solar radiation received at the poles.
Wobble - 21,000 - causes a distance change over a 21,000 year cycle, north
pole points both towards and away from the sun increasing the variation in
the irradiation of the northern hemisphere (precession)
Axal tilt - 41,000 - changes the axal tilt from 21.8 - 24.4, when there is less tilt there are warmer winters but cooler summers.

All 3 effect the mass balances of glaciers.

Question 10

Volcanic activity -

Answer 10

Idea of global temperatures weren’t the same until 5 years later due to the eruption of Krakotea in Indonesia, acts as a buffer trapping heat from the released sulphur, carbon dioxide and ash.

Question 11

Why do higher higher altitudes and latitudes have colder temperatures -

Answer 11

L = 65 degree plus of North and south of the poles colder due to receiving insufficient sunlight E.G Arctic or Antarctica.

A - lower atmospheric pressure causes air to expand, it’s volume loses energy and decreases in temperature E.G Alps

Question 12

Types of permafrost -

Answer 12

C - Coldest areas temp below -6 degrees up to 100m deep
D - More fragmented and thinner temperatures usually between -1.5 and -5 35m deep
S - 0 degrees occurs at glacial margins covering the smallest layers and at margins

Question 13

Periglacial means and examples -

Answer 13

Northern Russia and Canada with no ice cover and underlain by permafrost. Where soil in the active layer has not risen above 0 degrees for more than 2 years.

Question 14

Nivation -

Answer 14

Collection of seasonal snow which encourages frost weathering beneath them found in corries.

Question 15

Yamal Peninsula has economic and cultural value - (Environment)

Answer 15

Yamal Peninsula holds a 1/4 of the worlds gas, and double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. Model answer - Periglacial landscapes also provide lots of environmental value in terms of the carbon that is locked away. The Yamal Peninsula in Russia has a global environmental value as a large-scale carbon sink which stores an incredible amount of carbon and methane. The carbon stored here contributes twice as much as that stored in the atmosphere. This is environmentally valuable because the displacement of these gases and loss of this landscape would cause catastrophic, global effects as the release of that carbon would enhance global warming through the release of those gases. ​

Question 16

The Yamal Peninsula has also cultural value too -

Answer 16

The Yamal Peninsula has been known to offer cultural value through the indigenous people of Nenets and reindeer herding. Individuals tend to move with the reindeer herds in order to search for grazing grounds and seasonal resources. The involvement of 10,000 nomads in reindeer herding support indicates the significance of this practice for preserving indigenous cultures and traditional ways of life. Therefore maintaining there cultural value.

Question 17

Arctic and Antarctic polar scientific value -

Answer 17

Arctic - And its polar research is important to understand due to changing climates for example the Arctic warming and it is warming at twice the global average rate since 1979, due to this both the Arctic and Antarctic have become ‘living labs’ and have similarities and differences in their research plans. For example in Antarctica the UN environment programme reports that 60 countries and more than 10,000 researchers took place in scientific research costing over £1.5 billion. Some of the research conducted was to understand global change of past, present and future of changing ice cores along with the biodiversity and the effects of climate change on mass balance and food webs.

Question 18

Aropha glacier in USA has social value to the local people -

Answer 18

Both periglacial and glacial landscapes play a sufficient role in the world’s life support systems for example 75% of all freshwater is locked up in ice, glaciers are especially important and valuable as a source of water for example in the USA the Arapho glacier currently produces 260 million gallons of drinking water for the city of Boulder, Colorado.

Question 19

Swizz Alps have economic and social value -

Answer 19

Swizz Alps - The Swiss Alps attract over 20 million tourists annually generally for skiing, snowboarding and outdoor activities on the glaciated landscapes. The money accumulated contributes to the local economy through accommodation, restaurants and recreational services. Jungfrau railway to Jungfraujoch access by road tunnel for all year round tourism.

The Swiss Alps are home to numerous glaciers and high altitude lakes which serve as important services of water and meltwater for HEP, for example HEP accounts for approximately 60% of Switzerland’s electricity production. And glacial meltwater contributes to this too. These are seen but however controversial concerns of damming of rivers and the environment however micro-hydros have seen to revolutionise the quality of life in villages and accommodation from making renewable energy sources from local aesthetics.

Question 20

Lake District as a relict landscape -

Answer 20

Lake District attracts around 16 millions day visitors annually and it generates approximately £1.5 billion in visitor spending annually. Due to the threat of recreational activities for example walking, climbing and cycling it has led to footpath erosion, this is seen as a problem as the exposed soil is easily washed away and walkers destroy vegetation impacting infiltration rates. To improve the problem the local economy has benefited where in 2014 visitors spent about £1.1 billion to help support the local businesses and deal with the affects of tourism.

Question 21

Jokulhaups in Iceland -

Answer 21

Glacial outburst of floods - Jokulhaup, which is a powerful flood caused by the sudden change of discharge with may occur inside of the ice mass. This is seen in common in Iceland who call these jokulhaups because of the volcanic activity as this triggers meltwater beneath the glacier and triggers ice instability and the release of the meltwater in high discharge. E.G in 1996 where the eruption of Grimsvotn actually broke through the ice releasing ice and increasing temperatures. On November 5th a massive peak of glacial meltwater burst though the glacier causing a glacier outburst flood (Jokulhaup) causing damage to infrastructure around which led up to US$ 15 million.

Question 22

Avalanches in Yungay -

Answer 22

An Avalanche exists when sheer stress exceeds the mass of snow located on a slope, causing them to fall at alarming speeds and under the influence of gravity. For example in 1970 the Peruvian towns of Yungay were destroyed by an earthquake-induced ice and rock avalanche it travelled 16km down the valley killing over 18,000 people.

Question 23

Threats from the spreading interest in Sagarmatha national park -

Answer 23

Tourism for example Sagarmatha national park Nepal. Idea of polar tourism. Where 600 people attempt to climb Mount Everest each year and in doing so each climate generates 8kg of waste on the landscape. Also there has been an increase in polar tourism especially in the Arctic where tourism has doubled since the early 1990’s and is now gone from 1 million to 2 millions tourists by 2014 most activities associated are with the leisure and the viewing of the Northern lights, snowboarding and sledging. Most of these tourists arrive by ship for example Svalbard which is located deep in the Arctic circle received over 50 cruise ships in 2015 and due to the increasing interest and popularity for tourists and leisure, there have been more confirmed travel options of feeder flights and these are respected down to a minimum amount however due to the increase and popularity there have been a major increase on landing sites reaching nearly 200 in total and have spread will continue to spread to damaged uninhabited pristine areas.

Question 24

Glaciers have threats from climate change in tropical Andean glaciers - effecting agriculture and the hydrological cycle -

Answer 24

Around 95% of the Himalayan glaciers are in rapid retreat and further studies have shown vary few glaciers are expanding.

Recent surveys have confirmed the melt retreat has led to a much more severe positive feedback for example - less ice, less albedo, less reflection and more atmospheric warming therefore more melting, this destabilised effect of climate warming can be shown to change the context of hydrological cycle and sea level.

Significantly putting an imbalance on the hydrological cycle as a closed system.

Andean ‘tropical glaciers’ have declined by around 16% since 1870 but many have nearly completely disappeared for example Cotachaci in Ecuador has nearly completely nearly disappeared. Due to this there are future problems with biodiversity and in agriculture and tourism. This has also reduced water security with lack of quality.
E.g Bolivian urban centres rely on glacial meltwater for about 40% of their drinking water supply. Can be seen worse with glacial meltwater supplying 50% of the water for it’s 2 million people therefore changing hydrological conditions will affect current discharge and availability.

Furthermore it also affects other factors than just hydrological factors for example HEP generation for example in Ecuador it supplies 50% of total energy currencies therefore its affect will damage 50% of its energy mix and total security and 50% of the glacial meltwater which is supplied to 2 million people.

Question 25

Kames delta -

Answer 25

Proglacial so formed in front or in advance of a glacier. Kames are irregular shaped hills which are associated with a retreating glacier, form in zones of melting such as a crevasses and the meltwater. As the ice melts the kame begins to emerge as a low hill. Form an irregular pattern unlike Drumlins which form in the shape of swarms.

Question 26

Esker -

Answer 26

Often formed within ice-walled tunnels by meltwater reworking the sediment, once the retaining ice walls have melted, these meltwater reworked debris are deposited as distinctive long ridges. Tend to be orientated to ice flow

Question 27

Kame terraces -

Answer 27

Occur at the side of the glacier and thought to be parallel to ice flow. Sediment accumulates in pond/lakes and is trapped between lobes of the glacier, as the glacier retreats they are deposited on the valley side. Distinctive as can form steps down to the valley floor.

Question 28

Hanging valley -

Answer 28

Formed from a small tributary v/u shaped valley high above the main glacier flow.

Powerful thicker ice in the main glacier trough erode vertically downwards more rapidly than thinner ice or in tributary valleys so these are left high above the main valley floor.

Question 29

Crag and tail -

Answer 29

Such as that in the Castle Rock, Edinburgh.
Large mass of rock forms a steep stoss with a gently sloping tail of deposited material.

Large resistant rock is more resistant and creates a steep stoss. Reduced glacier velocity on the softer rock which allows deposition, creating a sloping tail

Question 30

Knoch and Lochan -

Answer 30

Low land areas alternating with small rocks (knocks) and hollows containing small lakes (lochans)

Base of the glacier results in widespread erosion ice sheets move over the rock and erode the lower less resistant rock forming these small depressions the hollows fill with meltwater and precipitation following ice retreat.

Question 31

Roche Moutonne -

Answer 31

Mass of bare on the valley floor with a smooth stoss (upside valley) and steep jagged lee (down-valley side)

As ice slides over the rock it scours and smooths the stoss while refreezing the lee and causing plucking.

Question 32

Ribbon lake -

Answer 32

Long narrow lake on the floor of the glacier trough/valley

Areas of deep abrasion and plucking deepen the valley, this may be due to weaker rock, this glacial flow is sometimes uneven and forms a lake.

Nant Ffrancon

Question 33

Glacial trough -

Answer 33

A U-shaped valley with steep sides and a wide flat floor.
A V-shaped valley experiences vast plucking and abrasion from the glacier as it forced through it and not around. It is deepened and widened forming a distinct U shape.

Question 34

Corrie -

Answer 34

An arm chair shape hollow with a steep sided back wall and a rock lip due to its deep rotational slip a tarn can be seen which is filled with meltwater or precipitation post glaciation.

Large rounded hollow on a mountainside is eroded and deepened by plucking and abrasion due to rotational slip of a cirque glacier its hollow is derived from Nivation where accumulated snow and pressure deepens the hollow.

Question 35

Arete and pyramidal peak

Answer 35

A - a narrow knife edged ridge between two corries

P - pointed mountain peak consisting of 3 or more glaciers