2A.11 There are threats facing fragile active and relict glaciated upland landscapes.

Question 1

Glaciated landscapes experience threats from natural and human activities -

Answer 1

natural hazards (avalanches and glacial outburst floods) and
human activities (leisure and tourism, reservoir construction,
urbanisation) (Alpine Valleys)

Question 2

Glacial outburst of floods in Iceland -

Answer 2

Glacial outburst of floods - Jokulhaup, which is a powerful flood caused by the sudden change of discharge with may occur inside of the ice mass. This is seen in common in Iceland who call these jokulhaups because of the volcanic activity as this triggers meltwater beneath the glacier and triggers ice instability and the release of the meltwater in high discharge. E.G in 1996 where the eruption of Grimsvotn actually broke through the ice releasing ice and increasing temperatures. On November 5th a massive peak of glacial meltwater burst though the glacier causing a glacier outburst flood (Jokulhaup) causing damage to infrastructure around which led up to US$ 15 million.

Question 3

Avalanches in Yungay -

Answer 3

An Avalanche exists when sheer stress exceeds the mass of snow located on a slope, causing them to fall at alarming speeds and under the influence of gravity. For example in 1970 the Peruvian towns of Yungay were destroyed by an earthquake-induced ice and rock avalanche it travelled 16km down the valley killing over 18,000 people.

Question 4

Threats from human activities -

Answer 4

Tourism for example Sagarmatha national park Nepal. Idea of polar tourism. Where 600 people attempt to climb Mount Everest each year and in doing so each climate generates 8kg of waste on the landscape. Also there has been an increase in polar tourism especially in the Arctic where tourism has doubled since the early 1990’s and is now gone from 1 million to 2 millions tourists by 2014 most activities associated are with the leisure and the viewing of the Northern lights, snowboarding and sledging. Most of these tourists arrive by ship for example Svalbard which is located deep in the Arctic circle received over 50 cruise ships in 2015 and due to the increasing interest and popularity for tourists and leisure, there have been more confirmed travel options of feeder flights and these are respected down to a minimum amount however due to the increase and popularity there have been a major increase on landing sites reaching nearly 200 in total and have spread will continue to spread to damaged uninhabited pristine areas.

Question 5

Human activities degrade on the Lake District as a relict landscape -

Answer 5

Lake District attracts around 16 millions day visitors annually and it generates approximately £1.5 billion in visitor spending annually. Due to the threat of recreational activities for example walking, climbing and cycling it has led to footpath erosion, this is seen as a problem as the exposed soil is easily washed away and walkers destroy vegetation impacting infiltration rates. To improve the problem the local economy has benefited where in 2014 visitors spent about £1.1 billion to help support the local businesses and deal with the affects of tourism. It is seen as a wide problem due to the 2 metre path being extended to 12 metres and the renovation of the 300 metre pathway costing £45,000.

Question 6

Human degradation of the landscape and ecosystems - Deforestation

Answer 6

Example of deforestation and the problem with soil erosion is seen high in many Andean areas as many of the slopes are over-grazed largely due to the pressure on land to provide for growing populations.

Deforestation - Due to illegal deforestation and logging in heavily dependant areas. Andean locations with logging has shown on average 40% of total timber production in attempt to maintain urbanisation, for example expansion of urban areas in the Andean foothills has led to the conversion of forested glacial land into residential and commercial areas.

Question 7

Human degradation of the landscape and ecosystems - Soil erosion

Answer 7

Intensive agricultural practices contribute to significant soil erosion in the Andean region and estimates suggest that over 30% of arable land in some regions has been affected by erosion. Therefore this has affected food security and agricultural productivity affecting the demanding population.

Question 8

Global warming has a major risk especially on glaciated landscapes - Mass balance and hydrological cycle (Andean tropical glaciers)

Answer 8

Around 95% of the Himalayan glaciers are in rapid retreat and further studies have shown vary few glaciers are expanding.

Recent surveys have confirmed the melt retreat has led to a much more severe positive feedback for example - less ice, less albedo, less reflection and more atmospheric warming therefore more melting, this destabilised effect of climate warming can be shown to change the context of hydrological cycle and sea level.

Significantly putting an imbalance on the hydrological cycle as a closed system.

Andean ‘tropical glaciers’ have declined by around 16% since 1870 but many have nearly completely disappeared for example Cotachaci in Ecuador has nearly completely nearly disappeared. Due to this there are future problems with biodiversity and in agriculture and tourism. This has also reduced water security with lack of quality.
E.g Bolivian urban centres rely on glacial meltwater for about 40% of their drinking water supply. Can be seen worse with glacial meltwater supplying 50% of the water for it’s 2 million people therefore changing hydrological conditions will affect current discharge and availability.

Furthermore it also affects other factors than just hydrological factors for example HEP generation for example in Ecuador it supplies 50% of total energy currencies therefore its affect will damage 50% of its energy mix and total security and 50% of the glacial meltwater which is supplied to 2 million people.

Furthermore, it will have local impacts of agricultural communities, but as a whole it will create national impacts for example Ecuador and their energy mix for generating electricity, it may result in the building of national reservoirs to combat the affects of positive feedback creating further costs from their already existing problems and it may been seen as inevitable due to the little causes of anthropogenic activities and it being mainly down to climate change.