University Test 2 Flashcards
What are the factors that initiate goals?
Goals are often initiated by several key factors:
- Expressing a desired identity: People set goals that align with how they see themselves or wish to be seen by others. Ex: someone who identifies as healthy might set a goal to exercise regularly.
- Instrumental rewards: Goals are also driven by the tangible or intangible rewards they might bring. Ex: earning a promotion or receiving praise.
- Influence by others: Both explicit encouragement and subtle cues from others can spark goal pursuit. Ex: a friend suggesting a diet plan can lead someone to set health-related goals.
How can others influence our goals?
The goals we pursue are often shaped by the presence or thoughts of others in several ways:
- Significant others: Simply thinking about someone important to us can activate goals associated with them. For instance, imagining a parent might trigger goals related to making them proud.
- Goal contagion: Observing others pursuing a goal, such as coworkers striving for a bonus, can make us adopt similar goals.
- Role models: Seeing successful individuals can inspire us to emulate their behaviors. For instance, a student might aim for academic success after hearing about a top performer.
- Resisting controlling others: Sometimes, our goals emerge from resisting pressures from others who try to dictate our actions, fostering a sense of autonomy.
What are impulses, and how do they differ from desires?
Impulses and desires are related but distinct concepts:
- Impulses are instant, often unconscious, reflexive urges for short-term satisfaction.
- Desires are longer-term, conscious motivations for achieving something enjoyable or relieving discomfort.
If a desire or an impulse conflicts with a larger goal, it is a temptation.
Define self-control and its connection to self-regulation.
Self-control is the ability to override impulses or desires to achieve long-term goals, and it is a fundamental aspect of self-regulation. Self-regulation encompasses the broader process of managing thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to align with personal standards or external expectations. Self-control specifically refers to the capacity to delay immediate gratification, such as resisting dessert to maintain a healthy diet.
What was the “Marshmallow Experiment,” and what did it measure?
The “Marshmallow Experiment,” conducted by Walter Mischel in the 1960s, measured delay of gratification in children. In this study, children were given a choice: eat one marshmallow immediately or wait 15 minutes to receive two marshmallows. The findings revealed that children who successfully delayed gratification tended to have better outcomes later in life, including higher academic achievement, healthier BMI, better emotional adjustment, and lower rates of substance abuse. The experiment highlights the importance of self-control in predicting life success.
What strategies can help delay gratification?
Several strategies can assist in delaying gratification:
- Attentional focus: Shifting attention away from the tempting object helps reduce its allure. For example, looking at a clock instead of the marshmallow during the Marshmallow Experiment.
- Self-distraction: Focusing on unrelated attributes of the temptation, like imagining the marshmallow as a cloud, can make resisting easier.
- Reframing the temptation: Viewing the object in a “cooler” perspective (e.g., seeing candy as mere sugar) diminishes its emotional appeal, making it easier to delay gratification.
What is the difference between reflexive impulses and reflective self-control?
Reflexive impulses are automatic and immediate reactions that prioritize short-term rewards. For instance, grabbing a piece of candy without thinking reflects an impulse. Reflective self-control, on the other hand, involves deliberate and conscious decision-making to align behavior with long-term goals, such as choosing an apple over candy to maintain a healthy diet. Over time, reflective self-control can become habitual, resembling reflexive behavior.
Explain Expectancy-Value Theories using an example.
Expectancy-Value Theories suggest that our behavior is driven by the perceived value of a reward and the likelihood of achieving it. For instance, when deciding whether to eat cake:
- Need strength: How hungry am I?
- Incentive value: How appealing is the cake?
- Success probability: Can I get the cake (e.g., do I have money or access)?
- Outcome satisfaction: Will eating the cake satisfy my hunger?
These factors interact to determine whether we pursue the goal of eating the cake.
Why does suppressing thoughts about temptations often fail?
Suppressing thoughts about temptations often backfires because it leads to:
- Rumination: Focusing on avoiding the temptation can make it more salient, increasing the desire. For example, trying not to think about chocolate might make it more appealing.
- Justifications for indulgence: Suppression efforts often result in generating excuses to give in (“I deserve a treat”).
- Rebound effects: After suppression ends, the temptation may return stronger than before, making indulgence more likely.
What is ego depletion, and how does it relate to self-control and aggression?
Ego depletion refers to the idea that self-control is a limited resource that can be drained through use. When self-control is depleted, individuals are more likely to act impulsively or aggressively. For example, in a study, participants who received negative feedback from a partner imposed longer uncomfortable yoga poses on their partner compared to those who received supportive feedback. This illustrates how depleted self-control can lead to aggressive behaviors.
What is goal contagion?
Goal contagion is the phenomenon where observing others pursuing a goal leads to the automatic adoption of similar goals. For example, seeing coworkers working hard to meet a deadline may unconsciously motivate you to focus more intensely on your tasks. This occurs even if the goals themselves are not directly communicated.
Define “self-regulation.”
Self-regulation is the process of managing one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to align with long-term goals or societal standards. It involves deliberate efforts to control impulses, manage stress, and maintain focus. For example, someone practicing self-regulation might resist the temptation to binge-watch TV to finish an important project instead.
What is the epsilon-cost temptation?
The epsilon-cost temptation refers to the perception that a single instance of indulgence has minimal consequences, making it easy to justify. For example, eating one slice of cake might seem insignificant in the short term, but repeated indulgences can add up over time, leading to health issues.
What did the Myrseth & Fischbach (2009) study reveal about facing temptation?
The study examined how framing and physical arrangement of temptations influence self-control. Participants were given either a calendar with grids (where days are visually distinct) or without grids (where days blur together). Participants with grids were more likely to frame unproductive days as isolated events, reducing indulgence. The study also showed that having snacks in separate bowls (healthy vs. unhealthy) created a visible conflict, making participants more likely to recognize and resolve self-control struggles.
How was the concept of ego depletion studied in relation to intimate partner violence (IPV)?
Researchers tested ego depletion by providing participants with false feedback from their partners, which was either nasty or supportive. Then, participants were asked to assign their partners uncomfortable yoga poses. Those who received nasty feedback assigned longer and more painful poses, suggesting depleted self-control resources led to increased aggression. Supportive feedback, in contrast, led to less punitive actions.
What did the Marshmallow Experiment reveal about the impact of self-control on life outcomes?
The Marshmallow Experiment found that children who resisted the immediate gratification of one marshmallow to receive two later exhibited better life outcomes. These included higher academic achievement, healthier BMI, and stronger social and emotional coping skills. The findings underscored the predictive value of self-control for long-term success.
How might a person demonstrate goal contagion in a workplace setting?
Imagine an office where one employee stays late to meet a critical deadline. Observing this behavior, another employee feels inspired to work extra hours to complete their own project, even though they initially planned to leave on time. This demonstrates how observing others pursuing goals can influence and activate similar goals in oneself.
What might happen if someone repeatedly succumbs to epsilon-cost temptations in their financial life?
For instance, a person may justify buying a $5 coffee daily, thinking, “It’s just a small expense.” Over a month, however, these costs accumulate to $150, impacting their budget for savings or bills. This highlights how small, seemingly negligible temptations can lead to significant long-term consequences.
How might framing a temptation as an isolated event help someone resist it?
A student trying to stick to a study schedule might frame their decision to skip one study session as a single, isolated choice. By doing so, they avoid falling into a pattern of indulgence, seeing it as a one-time deviation rather than part of an ongoing series of failures.
How could ego depletion impact behavior during a family argument?
Imagine a parent who spends the day exercising patience with unruly children. By evening, their self-control resources may be depleted, and they are more likely to snap or overreact during a minor disagreement with their spouse, highlighting how ego depletion affects interpersonal dynamics.
How might role models influence a child’s academic goals?
A child observing an older sibling diligently studying for college exams might feel motivated to excel in their own schoolwork. Even without explicit encouragement, the sibling’s behavior serves as a role model, instilling similar academic goals in the younger child.
Imagine Brian is at the office, and someone brings in a plate of cookies. What does Brian experience if he’s influenced by the concept of goal contagion?
If Brian is influenced by goal contagion, he might unconsciously adopt the goals of the person who brought the cookies. For example, if he notices a coworker avoiding the cookies to stick to their diet, Brian may feel motivated to pursue a similar health-related goal and resist eating a cookie himself. Conversely, if everyone is eating cookies and discussing how delicious they are, Brian might also feel compelled to indulge, adopting the short-term goal of enjoyment.
Jasmine often finds it hard to resist buying new clothes online, even when saving for a vacation. Explain this situation using epsilon-cost temptation.
Jasmine’s situation demonstrates epsilon-cost temptation. Each time she buys clothes, the cost seems negligible (e.g., “$30 won’t ruin my savings!”), so she doesn’t see a self-control conflict. However, over time, these small indulgences accumulate, significantly impacting her ability to save for her vacation. This concept highlights how minor temptations can undermine long-term goals when individuals fail to consider the broader consequences of repeated indulgence.
What strategies can help avoid temptation in real-world scenarios?
Several strategies effectively manage temptations in daily life:
- Distancing: Keeping temptations physically or psychologically out of reach. For example, storing junk food on a high shelf makes it harder to access.
- Precommitment: Making decisions in advance to avoid temptation, such as grocery shopping only for healthy items.
- Devaluing temptation: Actively focusing on negative aspects, like thinking about the health risks of sugary drinks.
- Cool/abstract representations: Visualizing a tempting object, like a candy bar, as unappealing, such as imagining it as a bland brick.
These strategies reduce the emotional appeal of temptations and make long-term goals more achievable.
Marco works late every night and is cognitively busy. Why might this make him more impulsive?
Being cognitively busy, as Marco is from working late, reduces the brain’s capacity to engage in reflective, controlled decision-making. This increases the influence of impulsive behaviors. For instance, Marco might be more likely to order fast food instead of cooking a healthy meal because his mental resources are occupied with work. Factors like cognitive load amplify the difficulty of resisting immediate gratification, leaving long-term goals, such as maintaining a healthy diet, vulnerable.
What are the chronic and contextual factors that influence the balance between self-control and impulsivity?
Chronic factors, such as personality traits, and contextual factors, such as situational pressures, shift the balance between self-control and impulsivity. For example:
- Chronic: Individuals with naturally high self-control are better equipped to resist impulses.
- Contextual: Temporary stress, fatigue, or alcohol consumption can tip the scales in favor of impulsivity. A person might skip a workout after a long day at work, even if they typically value fitness.
These factors highlight how both inherent tendencies and situational triggers impact goal-oriented behavior.
What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model?
The Elaboration Likelihood Model explains how people change their attitudes via persuasion, distinguishing between two routes of thinking: the central route, which uses facts and deliberate reasoning, and the peripheral route, which relies on emotions and superficial cues.
What is the existential dilemma?
The existential dilemma refers to the conflict between humans’ instinct for self-preservation and their awareness of inevitable death, often causing distress and anxiety.
What was the key finding of the 1989 Terror Management Study with municipal court judges?
Judges who were primed to think about their mortality set significantly higher bonds for a prostitute than the control group, suggesting that mortality salience led them to uphold their cultural worldview more strictly.
What was the outcome of the study on Christians rating other individuals (1990)?
When mortality was salient, Christian participants rated fellow Christians more positively and Jewish individuals more negatively, reflecting a bias towards those who shared their cultural worldview.
Sarah and her debate partner are preparing for a competition. Sarah prefers logical, fact-based arguments, while her partner, Dave, focuses on emotional appeals and relatable stories. Which routes of the Elaboration Likelihood Model do they represent?
Sarah represents the central route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model, while Dave represents the peripheral route.
On Community, Jeff Winger often wins arguments by using his charm and appearance rather than strong evidence. How does this align with the Elaboration Likelihood Model?
Jeff’s persuasion aligns with the peripheral route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model because he relies on superficial characteristics like charisma and attractiveness instead of logical arguments.
On Bones, Dr. Brennan dismisses Booth’s faith-based beliefs about life after death, focusing instead on scientific facts. Which type of transcendence does each character represent?
Booth represents spiritual transcendence through belief in an afterlife, while Dr. Brennan represents secular transcendence through lasting achievements and contributions to science.
Maria is asked to rate an essay about immigration policies. After passing a funeral home, she becomes more supportive of an essay that aligns with her cultural beliefs. What concept does this illustrate?
This illustrates the impact of mortality salience, where thoughts about death lead Maria to bolster her cultural worldview.
Liam suppresses his fear of death by focusing on his achievements at work. What defense mechanism is he using, and what are its limitations?
Liam is using proximal defense by consciously distracting himself. However, this is only a temporary fix, as suppressed thoughts may resurface unconsciously.
On Gilmore Girls, Rory feels pressured to live up to societal standards of success. How might Terror Management Theory explain this?
According to Terror Management Theory, cultural worldviews and self-esteem act as buffers against death anxiety. Rory’s pressure to meet societal standards reflects an effort to gain self-esteem by aligning with cultural expectations.
During a college election, a charismatic candidate uses patriotic slogans to gain votes, while a practical candidate focuses on policies. If students were primed with mortality salience, who are they likely to vote for?
Students are more likely to vote for the charismatic candidate because mortality salience increases the appeal of leaders who connect to cultural identity and meaning.
What did the study about mortality salience and political views reveal (2004)?
Participants primed with mortality salience became more likely to support charismatic leaders, even when their policies were less practical, demonstrating the influence of death awareness on political preferences.
What were the findings of the Greenberg et al. (1990) study about mortality salience and stereotyping?
After mortality salience, participants evaluated a stereotyped individual more positively if they matched the participant’s cultural worldview and more negatively if they opposed it.
What was the key outcome of the Landau et al. (2004) study on 9/11 and political attitudes?
Mortality reminders related to 9/11 increased support for George W. Bush, showing how existential fears can influence public opinion and reinforce loyalty to leaders perceived as protectors.
How does mortality salience affect attitudes toward people with differing values (e.g., Rosenblatt et al., 1989)?
Mortality salience leads to harsher judgments and punishments for those who violate cultural norms, as it strengthens the need to defend one’s worldview.
What is cultural worldview defense?
Cultural worldview defense is the tendency to uphold and protect beliefs, values, and symbols associated with one’s culture, particularly when reminded of mortality.
How does self-esteem serve as a buffer in Terror Management Theory?
Self-esteem helps individuals manage death anxiety by reinforcing their sense of value and alignment with cultural worldviews.
What is symbolic immortality, and how does it reduce existential anxiety?
Symbolic immortality is the belief that one will live on through contributions to culture, relationships, or other enduring legacies, helping to mitigate fear of death.
What are proximal and distal defenses in Terror Management Theory?
Proximal defenses are immediate, short-term reactions to death anxiety, often involving avoidance or suppression of death-related thoughts.
- Ex: When you start feeling anxious about death, you might immediately distract yourself by binge-watching a TV show to avoid thinking about it.
Distal defenses are long-term strategies that help reduce death anxiety by bolstering self-esteem or cultural beliefs that provide a sense of meaning or immortality.
- Ex: To cope with the idea of death in the long term, you might strengthen your belief in an afterlife or focus on living a meaningful life so that, even though death is inevitable, you feel that your life has purpose and will continue in some way through your beliefs, contributions, or legacy.
In a debate about climate change, one speaker focuses on hard data while another appeals to shared cultural values. How might mortality salience influence the audience’s preferences?
Mortality salience might lead the audience to favor the speaker who appeals to shared cultural values, as this reinforces their worldview.
Claire feels uncomfortable after hearing a story about a car accident. She immediately checks the brakes on her car. What type of defense is she using?
Claire is using a proximal defense, addressing the immediate threat to her safety to suppress thoughts of death.
What is obedience in social influence?
Obedience is when a person submits to a demand from someone more powerful, often against their own personal wishes.
Think of how in “Burn Notice,” Michael often has to obey powerful figures to achieve his goals, even when he doesn’t fully agree with their methods.
How is obedience different from compliance?
Obedience involves following an authority figure’s command, whereas compliance is agreeing to a request without the power dynamic.
In “Gilmore Girls,” Rory might comply with a request from her mom to do a chore, but obedience would be if Lorelai told Rory she had to do it for a reason beyond just asking.
What was Milgram’s central question in his 1963 experiment?
Milgram asked, “Why do good people do bad things?” by examining how people follow authority figures to harmful extremes.
In “Bones,” a character like Booth might follow a superior’s orders even when it means compromising his personal ethics, similar to the way participants in Milgram’s experiment continued shocking learners.
What was the basic procedure of Milgram’s 1963 experiment?
Participants thought they were testing the effect of punishment on learning by “shocking” a learner for wrong answers. They were pushed by the authority figure (experimenter) to continue shocking, even when the learner was in distress.
Imagine Shawn from “Psych” being told to keep up his detective work even when his gut tells him to stop. That’s what Milgram’s participants faced, except it involved shocking someone!
What were the key findings of Milgram’s 1963 experiment?
The majority of participants followed the instructions to administer the highest shock (450 volts), despite moral reservations.
Similar to how Shawn in “Psych” might continue with a wild plan, despite doubts from Gus, because an authority (like his father or a client) told him to keep going.
What factors make people more likely to obey authority, according to Milgram?
- Release from Responsibility:
- People feel less guilty when they believe the authority figure is accountable (e.g., Milgram’s participants trusted the researcher).
- Gradual Escalation of Demands:
- Small, incremental requests make it easier to justify continued compliance (e.g., increasing shock levels).
- Perceived Legitimacy of Authority:
- Authority figures seem more credible through titles, uniforms, or respected settings (e.g., lab coats at Yale).
How did Burger’s 2009 replication of Milgram’s experiment differ?
Burger’s study only went up to 150 volts (compared to Milgram’s 450 volts) and found that 70% of participants were still willing to continue past that point.
Imagine if Gus in “Psych” was told to go only halfway through an investigation before quitting but was still tempted to go the full route because someone important told him to.
What was the finding in the “voice feedback” condition of Milgram’s experiment?
The teacher could hear the learner’s responses (e.g., protests or distress), but obedience levels were still very high, suggesting the authority figure’s presence outweighed the emotional response.
What happened in the “remote feedback” condition of Milgram’s study?
The teacher couldn’t hear the learner’s distress (except for a thumping sound at high voltage), and obedience was similarly high.
How did the location affect obedience in Milgram’s variations?
When the study was moved from the prestigious Yale University to a less authoritative office building, obedience rates dropped.
What happened when the teacher and learner were in the same room (proximity condition)?
Obedience decreased because the teacher could see the learner’s distress and had to make direct contact.
How did the experimenter’s absence affect obedience in Milgram’s study?
When the experimenter gave instructions over a headset and wasn’t physically present, obedience rates dropped significantly.
What is identity-based followership according to Reicher et al. (2012)?
It’s when followers choose to identify with a leader’s cause because they agree with it, not because they blindly obey authority.
How do Cialdini’s six principles of social influence apply to everyday life?
The principles are:
- Reciprocation: Feeling obligated to return a favor or gift.
- Social Proof: Following what others do, especially in uncertain situations.
- Commitment and Consistency: Sticking to prior commitments to appear consistent.
- Liking: Being influenced by people you like or find attractive.
- Authority: Trusting and obeying those in positions of power or expertise.
- Scarcity: Valuing things more when they seem rare or limited.
They explain how people influence each other’s decisions.
What is the Foot-in-the-Door technique?
It’s a strategy where starting with a small request makes people more likely to agree to a larger one later.
In “Burn Notice,” Michael might ask for a small favor from someone, knowing it will increase the chances of them helping him with a bigger mission down the line.
What is the Door-in-the-Face technique?
Making a large request that is likely to be rejected, then following it up with a smaller, more reasonable request.
Imagine if Shawn in “Psych” first asks someone to risk their life for a case (huge request) but then just asks them for a simple piece of information (smaller request), knowing they’ll be more likely to say yes to the second one.
What was Asch’s conformity study about?
Asch tested how people conform to group pressure by asking participants to match lines, even when others clearly gave wrong answers. About 75% of participants conformed at least once.
What is the Endowment Effect?
It’s when people assign more value to something simply because they own it.
What’s the difference between implicit and explicit prejudice?
Implicit prejudice is automatic and unconscious, while explicit prejudice involves conscious, deliberate attitudes.
What is the Implicit Association Test (IAT)?
The IAT measures how quickly people associate different concepts (e.g., good vs. bad, or white vs. black) to gauge implicit bias.
What was Milgram’s 1963 obedience experiment about?
Milgram’s experiment investigated how far people would go in obeying an authority figure, even if it meant harming someone else. Participants thought they were shocking a learner for wrong answers, but the learner was actually an actor, and the study tested whether participants would continue under the authority figure’s instructions.
The study showed that people are often willing to follow harmful orders from authority figures, even when they know the actions are wrong.
What was the main finding of Milgram’s 1963 obedience experiment?
The majority of participants were willing to administer increasingly severe shocks to the learner, even when they heard distressing sounds from the learner, with 65% of participants going all the way to the maximum voltage of 450 volts.
This revealed the power of authority in encouraging people to carry out actions they might otherwise refuse.
What were the ethical issues with Milgram’s 1963 experiment?
The main ethical concerns were deception, lack of informed consent, and causing psychological distress to participants. Many participants experienced emotional strain, thinking they were harming someone.
The study raised significant ethical questions about the cost of knowledge and how psychological experiments should be conducted.
What did Asch’s 1951 conformity experiment investigate?
Asch’s experiment examined how peer pressure influenced individuals to conform to a majority opinion, even when that opinion was clearly incorrect. Participants were asked to match the length of a line with one of three comparison lines, with confederates giving incorrect answers.
The experiment demonstrated the power of group conformity, showing that people would go along with the group, even when they knew the group was wrong.
What were the findings of Asch’s 1951 conformity experiment?
About 75% of participants conformed at least once to the incorrect majority, and about one-third of participants conformed on a regular basis.
Asch’s findings revealed how powerful social influence can be, making individuals change their answers even when they are certain about the correct one.
What was Zimbardo’s 1971 Stanford prison experiment about?
Zimbardo’s experiment aimed to investigate how people would behave when placed in a simulated prison environment, with participants randomly assigned roles as either guards or prisoners.
The study explored how social roles and situational factors can drastically influence behavior. The results showed that individuals quickly adopted abusive behaviors when in positions of power, leading to the study being stopped early due to ethical concerns.
What was the aim of the Robbers Cave experiment (1954) by Muzafer Sherif?
Sherif’s experiment sought to explore intergroup conflict and cooperation by dividing boys at a summer camp into two groups and setting up competitive activities.
The goal was to see how competition could create hostility between groups and whether superordinate goals (goals requiring cooperation between groups) could reduce conflict.
What were the findings of the Robbers Cave experiment?
Sherif found that competition created strong intergroup hostility, but when the groups were forced to cooperate toward a shared goal, the hostility decreased and cooperation increased.
The experiment demonstrated the power of shared goals in reducing intergroup conflict and fostering cooperation.
What was the aim of the Milgram’s variation study with proximity in 1974?
Milgram’s proximity study aimed to test how physical proximity between the teacher and learner affected obedience. In this variation, the teacher and learner were in the same room.
The study found that obedience dropped significantly when the teacher could see the learner’s distress firsthand.
What were the results of Milgram’s proximity study in 1974?
When the teacher and learner were in the same room, obedience dropped from 65% to 40%, showing that direct proximity to the victim made it harder for participants to administer the shocks.
This variation illustrated that personal proximity increases empathy, reducing the likelihood of obedience to harmful commands.
What is dehumanization, and how does it relate to moral exclusion?
Dehumanization involves perceiving individuals or groups as less than human, often associating them with animalistic traits. Moral exclusion occurs when those dehumanized are excluded from moral consideration, meaning moral rules and values no longer apply to them.
What psychological experiment investigates the effects of dehumanization through priming with faces?
The experiment by Goff primes participants with white or black faces, then asks them to identify “degraded objects.” When primed with black faces, participants are quicker to identify apes, suggesting that dehumanization associates black individuals with animalistic traits, making them seem less human. This was not observed for other animals like lions or tigers.
Scenario: A store manager asks two employees, Jenny and Louis, to evaluate a customer based on their appearance. Jenny is shown a photo of a Black customer, while Louis is shown a photo of a White customer. Both are asked to rate the customer’s trustworthiness. How does this relate to dehumanization?
This scenario relates to the priming effect in dehumanization. Jenny, after being primed with a Black face, may be quicker to perceive the customer as a threat, reflecting how implicit biases shaped by dehumanization affect judgment. Louis, primed with a White face, may be less likely to perceive the same threat.
What is the dot-probe task used for in priming experiments?
The dot-probe task is used to measure automatic threat responses by assessing participants’ reaction times to identify the location of dots on a screen. If a threatening image, such as a Black face, precedes the dots, quicker identification of the dots indicates heightened vigilance or threat perception.
How does priming with images of apes or big cats influence responses to ambiguous situations?
In one experiment, participants primed with images of apes (often associated with Black people in dehumanizing contexts) showed quicker judgment that police violence against a suspect was justified, especially if they believed the suspect was Black. This priming effect shows how dehumanization influences perceptions of justified violence.
Scenario: Maya and her friend Pedro are watching a news story about a police officer beating a suspect. Maya has been shown a picture of a Black person before, while Pedro was shown a picture of a White person. How might their perceptions of the police officer’s actions differ?
Based on priming, Maya might be more likely to justify the police violence if she associates the suspect with Blackness and is primed with a Black face, while Pedro, primed with a White face, may show less justification for the same violence. This demonstrates how dehumanization shapes perceptions of fairness.
Can people admit to dehumanizing others explicitly?
Generally, people may not explicitly admit to dehumanizing others, as shown by Kteily’s study. He found that American participants rated European groups as highly evolved but viewed minority groups (like Muslims) as less evolved. This shows that dehumanization can be both implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious).
What does the “donation” experiment by Kteily demonstrate about dehumanization?
In Kteily’s experiment, participants were less likely to donate money to victims of drone strikes in the Middle East if they considered these groups to be “less evolved.” This demonstrates that dehumanization impacts behavior, such as charitable actions, towards dehumanized groups.
Scenario: An online charity event asks participants to donate to either victims of a local natural disaster or those affected by an international conflict. Alex, who has dehumanized groups from the conflict zone, is more likely to donate to the local victims. How does this relate to dehumanization?
Alex’s donation behavior illustrates how dehumanization affects compassion. By viewing the international victims as “less evolved,” Alex feels less empathy and is less likely to donate. This shows how dehumanization not only affects attitudes but also behaviors, like charitable giving.
What was the focus of Mohr & Zanna’s 1990 study on pornography?
Mohr & Zanna (1990) investigated how exposure to pornography influences men’s behavior towards women. They found that men with a “heterosexist” schema (belief in traditional gender roles) treated women more sexually after being primed with pornography, demonstrating how schemas influence behavior and perceptions.
What is the “heterosexist schema” in the context of gender and pornography?
The heterosexist schema is a mental framework that influences how individuals perceive and interact with women based on traditional gender roles. Men primed with pornography, especially those with a high heterosexist schema, are more likely to objectify and treat women sexually in interactions.
Scenario: Lucas, after watching an ad featuring a woman in a sexually suggestive pose, is asked to interact with a female coworker. He is more likely to make inappropriate comments about her appearance. What concept does this scenario illustrate?
This scenario demonstrates the influence of priming on behavior, where exposure to sexually suggestive ads activates the heterosexist schema. Lucas’s behavior reflects how pornography and similar priming can lead to sexual objectification of women.
What is stereotype threat, and how does it affect performance?
Stereotype threat occurs when individuals underperform due to anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes about their group, like women in math or Black students in IQ tests. The fear of confirming these stereotypes can undermine confidence and cognitive performance.
How did Steele & Aronson (1995) demonstrate stereotype threat with Black students?
Steele & Aronson (1995) found that Black students performed worse on an IQ test when they were told the test measured intelligence, because the fear of confirming racial stereotypes about intelligence caused anxiety and impaired performance.
Scenario: Maria, a female engineering student, is asked to take a challenging math test where she’s told that it will measure her math ability. How might stereotype threat impact her performance?
Due to stereotype threat, Maria might perform worse than she would if she weren’t aware of the stereotype that women are worse at math. The fear of confirming this stereotype may cause anxiety, which can negatively affect her test performance.
What is self-objectification, and how does it relate to body image?
Self-objectification occurs when individuals, particularly women, internalize external sexualized standards and see their bodies as objects to be evaluated based on appearance rather than personal qualities. This often leads to body shame and unhealthy body image.
How did Frederickson et al. (1998) demonstrate self-objectification through clothing?
Frederickson et al. (1998) showed that women who tried on a swimsuit (compared to a sweater) experienced higher levels of body shame, demonstrating how cultural practices like objectification can lead to self-objectification and impact body image.
Scenario: Emily, a high school student, is asked to wear a swimsuit for a school presentation. Afterward, she feels shame about her body and refuses to participate in gym class. How does this situation relate to self-objectification?
Emily’s experience of body shame after wearing a swimsuit for a school presentation reflects self-objectification, where cultural norms around women’s bodies contribute to feelings of inadequacy and shame. This scenario demonstrates how external objectification leads to internalized self-objectification.
What did Piaget propose about the development of morality in children?
Piaget suggested that children shift from understanding rules based on authority (such as parents or teachers) to a more mutual respect-based system as they grow. They start to understand fairness and reciprocity, recognizing the benefits of treating others equally.
Imagine that in Gilmore Girls, Rory and Lane are arguing about a shared study desk. Rory insists that Lane should follow her rules because she “got there first.” Lane disagrees, arguing that fairness should be considered. What Piagetian concept does this scenario illustrate?
This illustrates Piaget’s shift from authority-based rules to mutual respect and fairness. Rory represents an early stage of moral development where authority governs, while Lane is demonstrating a more advanced stage based on reciprocity and fairness.
What are the three stages in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?
Kohlberg proposed three stages of moral development:
- Preconventional – Morality based on punishment or reward.
- Conventional – Morality based on adherence to social rules and norms.
- Post-Conventional – Morality based on abstract principles like justice and human rights.
In Community, Shirley sees a classmate cheating during a test. Shirley hesitates, thinking about the consequences of getting caught (punishment) but ultimately decides to report the cheater because it’s the “right thing to do.” Which stage of Kohlberg’s moral development is Shirley demonstrating?
Shirley is demonstrating Kohlberg’s Conventional Stage. She follows the rules of fairness and honesty, showing an understanding of societal norms and expectations, even though her initial hesitation was based on avoiding punishment (Preconventional).
What is Gilligan’s criticism of Kohlberg’s theory, and how does it relate to morality?
Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s theory overly emphasized justice and abstract principles, ignoring the importance of caring relationships. She suggested that morality also involves empathy, compassion, and caring for others, particularly in relational contexts.
Imagine in Burn Notice, Michael Weston is trying to stop a villain from causing harm to a civilian. While others may focus on capturing the villain (justice), Michael might choose to protect the civilian, emphasizing empathy and care. What aspect of Gilligan’s theory does this show?
Michael’s actions reflect the Post-Conventional (Balance of Care) stage in Gilligan’s Ethics of Care. He prioritizes the civilian’s immediate well-being over abstract rules like justice, demonstrating a nuanced balance between caring relationships and broader ethical considerations.
What is Haidt’s theory of moral foundations, and how do they relate to culture?
Haidt’s Moral Foundation Theory suggests that moral intuitions are based on innate psychological mechanisms that are shaped and modified by cultural practices. These foundations include both individual concerns (such as harm and fairness) and binding concerns (such as loyalty and authority).
In Bones, Dr. Brennan frequently defends a logical, scientific approach to solving cases. Meanwhile, Booth often relies on his instincts, which include a strong sense of loyalty and respect for authority. What aspect of Haidt’s theory does this illustrate?
This illustrates Moral Foundation Theory, where Brennan focuses on individualizing foundations (harm and fairness), while Booth emphasizes binding foundations (loyalty and authority). Their differing moral intuitions reflect how culture and personal experiences influence their moral judgments.
What is moral dumbfounding, and how does it affect moral judgments?
Moral dumbfounding refers to a situation where people feel strongly that something is morally wrong, but cannot explain why they feel that way. It suggests that moral judgments are often driven by intuition rather than rational explanation.
In Psych, Shawn and Gus investigate a case where a person finds a seemingly innocent object but insists it’s “wrong” without being able to explain why. The more they try to figure out why it feels wrong, the less they can articulate their reasoning. What concept does this situation illustrate?
This illustrates moral dumbfounding, where the characters have a strong moral intuition but are unable to rationally explain their emotional reaction to the situation.
What is the Motivated Cognition Hypothesis, and how does it explain moral reasoning?
The Motivated Cognition Hypothesis suggests that people’s political and moral views are shaped by psychological needs. For example, conservatives may enhance binding values (like loyalty and authority) to satisfy a need for stability, while liberals may focus on individualizing values like fairness and care.
In Community, Jeff and Annie get into a heated debate about the fairness of a school policy. Jeff, a more conservative character, argues that loyalty to the school is more important than fairness to the individual. Annie, a liberal character, insists that fairness should come first. What does this scenario illustrate?
This scenario illustrates the Motivated Cognition Hypothesis, where Jeff’s conservative stance emphasizes binding values like loyalty, while Annie’s liberal stance highlights individualizing values such as fairness and care.
What is the relationship between power and hypocrisy in moral judgment?
Studies suggest that individuals in high-power positions are more likely to tolerate or justify their own immoral actions, whereas people in low-power positions tend to judge others’ actions more harshly. This is often referred to as the hypocrisy effect.
In Burn Notice, Michael Weston is the leader of a team, while Fiona is often following his instructions. Michael lets a minor rule slide during a mission but criticizes Fiona when she does the same. What concept does this scenario illustrate?
This scenario illustrates the hypocrisy effect, where Michael, in a position of power, justifies his own moral lapses but judges Fiona’s actions more harshly. This dynamic shows how power can influence moral judgment.
In Bones, Dr. Brennan and Agent Booth disagree about the morality of a situation involving a whistleblower. Brennan focuses on fairness and the individual’s right to speak out, while Booth stresses loyalty to the agency. What key concept is being highlighted here?
This situation highlights the tension between the individualizing foundations and binding foundations described in Moral Foundation Theory. Brennan represents an individualistic concern (fairness and harm), while Booth represents a binding concern (loyalty to authority).
What is the Theory of Dyadic Morality, and how does it frame moral judgment?
The Theory of Dyadic Morality suggests that morality is centered around harm done between two people (dyadic relationships). According to this theory, actions are morally significant when one person harms another, and moral judgment is based on this interaction.
In Burn Notice, Michael is deciding whether to help a civilian involved in a dangerous situation, or prioritize the mission. If he helps the civilian, it could harm the mission, but if he ignores them, the civilian might suffer. What moral dilemma is Michael facing according to the Theory of Dyadic Morality?
Michael is facing a dyadic moral dilemma where the harm done (to either the civilian or the mission) directly involves his actions toward another person. According to the Theory of Dyadic Morality, this type of judgment focuses on the harm caused to individuals in direct relationships.
What does the theory that “power increases hypocrisy” suggest about moral judgment?
The theory suggests that when people are in positions of power, they tend to see their own transgressions as more acceptable than the same actions in others. Power can lead to a moral contradiction, where individuals justify their own immoral behavior while condemning similar behavior in others.
In Psych, Shawn is assigned a leadership role in solving a case and uses questionable tactics. When Gus points out that the methods were unethical, Shawn defends himself, claiming that the ends justify the means. What concept is Shawn demonstrating here?
Shawn is demonstrating the “Power Increases Hypocrisy” effect. As a leader, he feels that his position justifies his actions, despite the ethical contradictions. This is an example of how power can make people more likely to tolerate their own immoral behavior while criticizing similar actions from others.
What is the Unity/Communal Sharing relationship structure, and how does it function?
Unity/Communal Sharing refers to a relationship structure where individuals view each other as equals, and resources, rights, and responsibilities are shared without distinction. This structure emphasizes togetherness and collective well-being. It’s typically seen in close-knit relationships, like family or close friends, where everyone contributes and shares equally.
In Gilmore Girls, Rory and Lorelai often share resources like time, money, and emotional support without keeping track of who owes what. Their relationship is characterized by a focus on collective well-being. What relationship structure does this illustrate?
Rory and Lorelai’s relationship exemplifies Unity/Communal Sharing, where both share resources and emotional support equally, without concern for personal gain or differences in contribution. This structure is based on mutual care and collective responsibility.
What is the Hierarchy/Authority Ranking relationship structure, and how does it function?
Hierarchy/Authority Ranking refers to a relationship structure where individuals are ranked based on status or power. This structure emphasizes clear roles, responsibilities, and authority, with individuals at higher levels exerting control or influence over those below them. It’s common in workplaces, militaries, or families where there is an established power dynamic.
In Bones, Dr. Brennan and Agent Booth work together, but Brennan is often in a higher position of authority in their professional work, directing the investigation or making final decisions. What relationship structure is at play here?
The dynamic between Dr. Brennan and Agent Booth reflects the Hierarchy/Authority Ranking structure. Brennan, as a scientist and expert, typically holds more authority in certain professional situations, while Booth, as an agent, follows her lead, illustrating a power and status hierarchy.
What is the Equality/Equal Matching relationship structure, and how does it function?
Equality/Equal Matching refers to a relationship structure where individuals exchange resources, favors, or benefits in a balanced manner. This structure emphasizes fairness and reciprocity, with each person giving and receiving in equal measure. It is common in friendships or partnerships where both individuals strive for an equal balance of contributions.
In Community, Jeff and Shirley often work together to accomplish tasks and ensure that their contributions are equally balanced, whether in class projects or community service efforts. What relationship structure does this illustrate?
Jeff and Shirley’s interactions in Community exemplify the Equality/Equal Matching structure, as they strive to maintain a fair and balanced exchange of contributions. Both aim to ensure that their efforts are reciprocated, leading to an equitable relationship.
What is the Proportionality/Market Pricing relationship structure, and how does it function?
Proportionality/Market Pricing refers to a relationship structure where exchanges are based on proportionality and efficiency. People give and receive according to the relative value of the resources or services exchanged, much like transactions in a market. This structure is common in business transactions or situations where cost, benefit, and value are carefully calculated.
In Burn Notice, Michael and Fiona often barter services in exchange for favors, like when Michael helps someone in return for valuable information or resources. What relationship structure does this represent?
The relationship between Michael and Fiona in Burn Notice exemplifies the Proportionality/Market Pricing structure, where their interactions involve exchanges based on the relative value of the services or resources they provide each other, similar to a market transaction.
What is persuasion and how does it relate to attitudes and behavior?
Persuasion is the process of influencing people’s attitudes and behaviors through communication. It involves changing beliefs, feelings, or actions in response to persuasive messages, which can be based on logical reasoning or emotional appeals.
What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), and what are its key routes?
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), proposed by Petty and Cacioppo, suggests that there are two main routes to persuasion:
Central route: Involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the content of the message.
Peripheral route: Involves superficial processing based on peripheral cues (e.g., attractiveness of the source, credibility).
What happens in the central route to persuasion according to the Elaboration Likelihood Model?
In the central route, individuals carefully consider the logic and strength of the arguments presented in a persuasive message. They are motivated to think deeply and may integrate the message into their belief system if the arguments are convincing, leading to a more lasting attitude change.
What happens in the peripheral route to persuasion according to the Elaboration Likelihood Model?
In the peripheral route, individuals rely on superficial cues, such as the attractiveness or credibility of the message source, rather than the content of the message itself. This route often leads to temporary attitude change, influenced by factors like the source’s appeal rather than the strength of the arguments.
What is the Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM) of persuasion?
The Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM), proposed by Shelly Chaiken, is similar to the ELM and suggests that people process persuasive messages in two ways:
Systematic route (Central route in ELM): Deep, thoughtful processing of the message.
Heuristic route (Peripheral route in ELM): Quick, effortless processing based on simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts.
What are the roles of motivation and ability in determining whether someone processes a message through the central or peripheral route?
- Motivation: If the message has personal relevance, people are more likely to process it centrally, engaging deeply with the content.
- Ability: If individuals have the cognitive resources and time, they are more likely to process messages deeply. If they lack the ability (e.g., distractions, time constraints), they are more likely to process it peripherally.
In an experiment testing ELM, how can the central and peripheral routes be studied?
In the experiment, researchers could present strong or weak arguments for a persuasive message and manipulate peripheral cues (e.g., source attractiveness). If participants process the message centrally, they will be more influenced by the strength of the arguments. If they process peripherally, they will be more influenced by peripheral cues like the source’s attractiveness.
What are subliminal stimuli, and how can they influence behavior?
Subliminal stimuli are stimuli presented below conscious awareness. They can activate concepts and influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors without the person being aware of it. However, research suggests that subliminal stimuli cannot force people to do something against their will.
In an experiment, participants were subliminally primed with either a happy child or a bloody shark before evaluating a target person. What were the results?
Participants who were subliminally primed with an image of a happy child gave more favorable evaluations of the target person compared to those primed with an image of a bloody shark. This demonstrates the influence of subliminal stimuli on attitudes, even without conscious awareness.
In another experiment, participants were subliminally primed with thirst-related or neutral words before being allowed to drink. What was the result?
Participants who were subliminally primed with thirst-related words drank significantly more than those primed with neutral words. This demonstrates that subliminal stimuli related to a person’s needs can influence behavior, such as increasing consumption when thirsty.
What are the key source characteristics that influence persuasion?
Source characteristics include:
Attractiveness: Can promote attitude change through the peripheral route (e.g., appealing sources are more persuasive).
Credibility: The source’s expertise and trustworthiness. Credible sources are more persuasive, especially in peripheral processing.
Certainty: Confident expressions can increase persuasiveness, even from less credible sources.
What is the sleeper effect in persuasion?
The sleeper effect refers to the phenomenon where a message from a source initially viewed as untrustworthy becomes more persuasive over time as people dissociate the message from its source. This effect occurs when trust in the source is low but grows as the message itself is seen as more plausible.
How does message quality affect persuasion?
High-quality messages are persuasive when they are clear, logical, and align with the audience’s core values. Messages that explicitly convey desirable outcomes and refute opposing arguments are especially persuasive. Refuting arguments that align with the audience’s self-interest, like an anti-smoking message from a cigarette company, can be particularly effective.
How does vividness (e.g., colorful, interesting stories) influence persuasion?
Vividness makes messages more engaging and memorable, even if the facts are untrue. The identifiable victim effect suggests that people are more likely to respond to a message when the victim is portrayed as a specific, identifiable person rather than an anonymous or statistical figure.
How can fear appeals be used effectively in persuasive messages?
Fear appeals can be effective if they are accompanied by concrete information on how to deal with the source of fear. For example, graphic anti-smoking ads combined with information about how to quit smoking are more persuasive than fear-based ads alone.
How do independent and interdependent cultures respond to persuasive messages?
Independent cultures (e.g., Americans) are more persuaded by messages focusing on gains and individual benefits. Interdependent cultures (e.g., Koreans) respond better to messages focusing on losses and the collective impact, emphasizing prevention rather than personal gain.
What is the definition of “need for cognition”?
It refers to the degree to which people think deeply about things.
How do people with a high need for cognition respond to persuasive messages?
They are persuaded by high-quality arguments, not peripheral cues.
How do people with a low need for cognition respond to persuasive messages?
They place less importance on quality arguments
How does mood affect the success of persuasive messages?
Persuasive messages are more successful when the mood of the message matches the audience’s mood.
Why is age important in persuasion?
Younger people are generally more susceptible to persuasive messages than adults or the elderly.
How does audience size and diversity affect persuasion?
In large, diverse groups, persuasive messages need to be more abstract and use general terms to be effective.
What is metacognition in the context of persuasion?
It refers to thinking about one’s own thinking.
What is the Self-Validation Hypothesis?
It suggests that feeling confident about our thoughts makes us more likely to be persuaded in their direction, while doubting them may lead to rejecting them or endorsing the opposite view.
How can bodily movements influence persuasion?
Nodding the head while reading a persuasive message boosts confidence in the message, while shaking the head may reduce persuasion, especially if the argument is weak.
What is the third-person effect?
It is the belief that others are more susceptible to persuasive tactics than oneself.
How does consumer advertising relate to persuasion?
There is a weak or non-existent correlation between a product’s advertising budget and its sales, but it can increase product awareness, brand loyalty, and positive feelings.
What is the relationship between political advertising and election results?
There is no significant correlation between ad spending and election outcomes, and negative ads can discourage voting altogether.
How do public service announcements affect behavior?
They often have little effect on behavior, but certain campaigns (e.g., promoting safe sex) can lead to positive changes.
These campaigns tend to be more effective because they often combine clear messages with emotional appeals or social norms, making the message more relatable and motivating. Successful campaigns might also involve targeted strategies (like using relatable role models, creating a sense of urgency, or offering tangible benefits) to help people see the benefits of making a change or the consequences of not doing so.
How does media shape our conception of social reality?
Media influences perceptions of issues like materialism or happiness, shaping what people view as important or true.
