Unit Exam 3 Flashcards
Developmental Psych
Study of age related changes in behaviour and mental processes from conception to death
Nature
development governed by maturation (automatic, genetically predetermined signals) and critical periods (time of sensitivity to specific types of learning
Nurture
development governed by learning through observation and personal experience
Stages or Continuity?
Stage- development results from discrete, qualitative changes
Continuity- development changes at a steady, quantitative rate
Stability
Childhood personality measurements closely predict adult personality
Change
life changes can affect a person’s development from childhood to adulthood
Cross-Sectional Research Approach
different participants of various ages are compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences
Cohort Effect
groups of people having a bond due to similar experiences
causes problems in a cross sectional study, because different groups will have different knowledge
Longitudinal Research Approach
the same participants are studied at various ages to determine age-related changes
Conception
ovum unites with a sperm cell
Zygote
new cell that is created by the union of ovum and sperm
Germinal Period
Prenatal Stage
first stage, which begins with ovulation, conception, and implantation in the uterus
Embryonic Period
embryo- after implantation through the 8th week
Fetal Period
8 weeks to birth; increased growth and fine detailing
Proximodistal Growth
near to far; internal developing before external
Cephalocaudal Growth
head to tail, top to bottom
Fetal Alcohol Syndrom
combination of birth defects from maternal alcohol abuse
Prenatal Brain Development
begins as early as three weeks after conception
by week 11, there is a defined forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
Early Childhood Physical development
Brain- as infants learn and develop, pruning of neutrons occurs
Motor Development- initially reflexes (Involuntary movements to stimulation), then voluntary control
Sensory and Perceptual- vision is 20/20 at 2 years, hearing develops before birth
Adolescence
period of development between childhood and adulthood
Puberty
biological changes during adolescence
Growth Spurt
rapid increases in height, weight, and skeletal growth during puberty
Menopause
cessation of menstruation and decreased estrogen production in middle aged women
there is a social devaluation of agin women
Male Climacteric
gradual decline in testosterone and sperm production, weight gain, greying or loss of hair, etc
Ageism
prejudice or discrimination based on physical age
Programmed Theory of Dying
agings genetically controlled
Damage Theory of Dying
accumulated cell and organ damage ultimately causes death
Schemas
basic units of intellect; cognitive structures or patterns consisting of a number of organized ideas that grow and differentiate with experience
Assimilation
applying existing schemas to new information; new information is incorporated into existing schemas
Accomodation
adjusting existing schemas or developing new ones to fit with new information
Piagets 4 Stages of Development
Sensorimotor Stage
Pre operational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
Sensorimotor Stage
Limits: lacks permanence- the understanding that things continue to exist even when not seen or heard
Abilities: uses senses and motor skills to explore and develop cognitively
Language acquisition and object permanence are steps to the next stage
Pre operational Stage
Limits: cannot perform operations, intuitive thinking, egocentric thinking, animistic thinking
Abilities: significant language and thinks symbolically
Concrete Operational Stage
Limits: cannot think abstractly
Abilities: can performs operations on concrete objects, understands reversibility, less egocentrical
Formal Operational Stage
Limits: adolescent egocentrism, personal fable, imaginary audience
Abilities: can think abstractly
Personal Fable
thinking no one can understand what you are going through
Imaginary Audience
thinking that everyone is watching you, leading to self consiousness
Invincibility Fable
thinking that you are the one who will beat the odds
Criticism of Piaget
younger children may understand things at a higher level then they can articulate
underestimates genetic and sociocultural influences
Vygotsky’s Theory of Development
a continuum of learning from tasks you can do by yourself, to tasks you can only do with help by and education individual
Zone of Proximal Development- tasks in a range that a person is close to acquiring but cannot perform without the help of another
Attachment
strong emotional bond with special others that endures over time
Temperament
a child’s personality as a baby- easy or fussy
Attachment Types- Mary Ainsworth Experiment
Secure
Anxious/ Ambivalent
Anxious/Avoidant
Disorganized/ Disoriented
Secure Attachment
seeks the closeness of mother, moderate distress when she leaves, happy when reunited
Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment
infant become very upset when mother leaves, shows mixed emotions when she returns
Anxious/ Avoidant Attachment
infant does not seek closeness with caregiver, little emotion when caregiver comes or leaves
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
infant seems confused or apprehensive in the presence of the caregiver
Baumrind Parenting Styles
Permissive Neglectful
Permissive Indulgent
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive Neglectful Parenting
low control, low warmth
little structure, little interest or emotion, may be actively rejecting
Children have poor social skills and little self control
Permissive Indulgent Parenting
Low Control, high warmth
parents set few limits and are very involved and emotional
Children fail to learn respect for others and tend to be impulsive, immature, out of control
Authoritarian Parentin
high control, low warmth
parents are rigid and punitive, while being low in emotion and warmth
children tend to be moody, aggressive, and have poor communication skills
Authoritative Parenting
High control, high warmth
firm limits while being highly involved and tender
children tend to be self reliant, controlled, high achievers, goal oriented, friendly, and socially competent
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Pre conventional Stage: Punishment-Obedience and Instrumental Exchange
Conventional Stage: Good Child Orientation, Law and Order Orientation
Post conventional Level: Social Contract and Universal Ethics
Preconventional Stage
Punishment-Obedience- avoidance of punishment and ignorance of people’s intentions
Instrumental Exchange- children become aware of other opinions, morality based on reciprocity
Conventional Stage
Good Child- primary moral concern is being nice, gaining approval, judges others by intention
Law and Order- understand that if everyone violated laws, even with good intentions, there would be chaos
Post Conventional Stage
Social Contract- societal laws are obeyed because of the social contract; laws can be broken if they fail to maximize social welfare or the will of the majority
Universal Ethics- right determined by universal ethics, which apply regardless of the law
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
moral reasoning v behaviour- situational factors may be a better predictor of moral behaviour than a moral stage
more reflective of an individualistic society
possible gender bias- emphasizes more typically male values
Erik son’s Psychosocial Stages
Trust v Mistrust Autonomy v Shame and Doubt Initiative v Guilt Industry v Inferiority Identity v Role Confusion Intimacy v Isolation Generativity v Stagnation Ego Integrity v Despair
Sex
biological maleness or femaleness, including the chromosomal sex
Gender
the psychological and sociocultural meanings added to biological maleness and femaleness
Gender Roles
the societal expectations for normal and appropriate male and female behaviour
Gender Differences
females tend to score higher on verbal skills and males tend to score higher on math and visual spatial tests
Social-Learning Theory (Gender Role Development)
rewards and punishments + observation and imitation of models= gender typed behaviour
Cognitive Developmental Theory (Gender Role Development)
Social learning and active cognitive processing of gender role information -> building of gender schemas -> gender-typed behaviour
Androgyny
expressing both the masculine and feminine traits found in each individual
Developmental Challenges through Adulthood
Committed Relationships
Families
Resiliency
Work and Retirement
Activity Theory of Aging
successful aging is fostered by a full and active commitment to life
Disengagement Theory of Aging
successful aging is characterized by mutual withdrawal between the elderly and society
widely abandoned theory
Socioemotional Selective Theory of Aging
a natural decline in social contact occurs as older adults become more selective with their time
Kugler-Ross Stage Theory of Dying
Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance
Motivation
a set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behaviour, usually toward some goal
Emotion
subjective feeling that includes arousal (heart pounding, cognitions (thoughts, values, and expectations), and expressive behaviours (smiles, frowns, running)
Instinct Theory (Motivation)
motivation results from innate, biological, instincts
Instincts- behavioural patterns that are unlearned, always expressed in the same way, and universal in a species
Drive-Reduction Theory (motivation)
motivation begins with a biological need (deficiency) that elicits a drive toward behaviours that will satisfy the original need and restore homeostasis
Optimal Arousal Theory (motivation)
organisms are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal
Incentive Theory (motivation)
motivation results from external stimuli that pull the organism in certain directions
Cognitive Theory (motivation)
motivation is affected by expectations and attributions, or how we interpret or think about our own or other’s actions
Locus of Control
Internal Locus of Control
attributes success to internal factors
External Locus of Control
attributes success to external factors
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Motivation)
lower needs like hunger and safety must be ratified before advancing to higher needs (such as belonging and self-actualization)
4 Factors of Sensation Seeking
Thrill and Adventure Seeking
Experience Seeking
Disinhibition
Susceptibility to Boredom
Factors of Motivation- Hunger and Eating
Biological- lowered nutrient levels in stomach are detected, pressure receptors signal satiety, hypothalamus regulates eating and drinking
Environmental Cues- looking at a clock, food, etc.
Achievement Motivation
desire to excel, especially in competition with others Need for Achievement (nAch) People with a high nAch score tend to Prefer moderately difficult tasks competitive prefer clear goals with competent feedback responsible persistent more accomplished
Extrinsic Motivation
being motivated by outside factors like rewards or punishments
Controlling Reward
Reward is given for all right behaviour- child is motivated by the reward
Approval Reward
Motivated by the approval of peers or parents
Intrinsic Motivation
being motivated internally to do good work
Informing Reward
Child acts because of internal factors and is rewarded because of it
No Strings Treat-
child acts a certain way and is rewarded for that behaviour by parents or peers
Biological Components of Emotion
Brain- cortex, limbic system, amygdala, thamalus
Autonomic Nervous System- sympathetic and parasympathetic
Cognitive Component of Emotion
thoughts, values, expectations
Behavioural Component
expressions, gestures, body positions
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Stimulus -> Physiological Arousal -> experience emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
stimulus -> thalamus relays information -> physiological arousal and emotion experienced at the same time
Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory
stimulus -> physiological arousal -> label -> experience the emotion
Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
movements of the facial muscles produce and/or intensify our subjective experience of emotion
Cultural Emotion Similarities
There are some emotions with are seen in all cultures and others which are not
fear, anger, disgust, surprise, happiness are universal
Personality
relatively stable and enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theory- Freud’s 4 Key Concepts
Levels of consciousness
Personality Structure
Defence Mechanisms
Psychosexual stages of Development
Id
primitive, instinctive part of the personality, that works on the pleasure principle
seeks immediate gratification
Ego
rational, decision making part of the personality that operates according to the reality principle
delays gratification of the id’s impulses until appropriate
Superego
a set of ethical rules for behaviour developed from parental and societal standards for morality, operating on the morality principle
guilt if rules are violated
Defense Mechanisms
the ego’s protective method of reducing anxiety by distorting reality and self deception
Examples: repression, denial, rationalization, intellectualization, regression
Psychosexual stages of development
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
Adler’s Individual Psychology
we are motivate by our goals in life rather than by unconscious forces
Inferiority complex- feelings of inferiority develop from early childhood experiences of helplessness and incompetence
Jung’s Analytical Psychology
Two forms of the unconscious:
Personal Unconscious- from individual experiences
Collective Unconsious- a reservoir of inherited, universal experiences
Archetypes- images and patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours residing in the collective unconscious
Horney’s Blended Psychology
personality is shaped by the child’s relationship to the parents
Basic anxiety- feelings of helplessness and insecurity that adults experience because as children they felt alone and isolated in a hostile environment
first feminist criticism of Freud’s sexism
Traits
relatively stable and consistent characteristics that can be used to describe someone
Early Trait Theorists
Allport, Sattel, and Eysenck
Factor Analysis
statistical procedure for determining the most basic units or factors in a large array of data
used by Cattle and Eysenck
Five Factor Model
Openness Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
Humanistic Theories
personality and behaviour depend on how we perceive and interpret the world
people are naturally good
Self Actualization- inborn drive to develop all of one’s talents and capabilities
Rogers’ Theory
Self Concept- all the information and beliefs individuals have about their own nature, qualities and behaviour
When ones self concept and experience are congruent, a person is well adjusted, and maladjusted if not
Unconditional Positive Regard- love and acceptance with no strings attached
Bandura’s Approach (Social Cognitive)
combines cognition and observation
Self Efficacy- the learned belief that one is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and achieving personal goals
Reciprocal Determinism- cognitions, behaviours, and the environment interact to produce personality
Rotter’s Social Cognitive Theory
Personality and behaviour is determined by expectations and reinforcement value of outcomes
Internal Locus of Control- own efforts exert primary control
External Locus of Control- environment and external factors have primary control
Biological Contributions to Personality
Brain
Neurochemistry- neurotransmitter levels have been correlated with personality traits
Genetics
Social Psychology
a scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others
Attributions
explanations for behaviours or events
Fundamental Attribution Error
attributing people’s behaviour to dispositional causes rather than situational factors
Saliency Bias
focusing on the most noticeable (salient) factors when explaining the causes of behaviour
Self-Serving Bias
taking credit for our successes and externalizing our failures; motivated by a desire to maintain positive self esteem and a good public image
Actor- Observer Bias
we tend to explain our own behaviour in terms of situational factors and others behaviour in term of disposition
Attitudes
learned predisposition to respond to objects, people, and events in a particular way
Three Elements of Attitude
Affective- emotions
Cognitive- thoughts
Behavioural- actions
Cognitive Dissonance
a feeling of discomfort caused by a discrepancy between and attitude and a behaviour
Dealing with Cognitive Dissonance
Change perceived importance of one of the conflicting cognitions
Modify one of the conflicting cognitions
Add additional cognitions
Deny that conflicting cognitions are related
Conformity
changing behaviour because of real or perceived group pressure
Normative social influence
conforming to group pressure out of a need for approval and acceptance
Norm
cultural rule of behaviour prescribing what is acceptable in a given situation
Informational Social influence
conforming because of a need for information and direction
Reference Groups
people we conform to because we like and admire them and want to be life them
Obediance
following direct commands, usually from an authority figure
Four Factors to Obedience (Milgram)
Legitimacy and closeness of the authority figure
Remoteness of the victim
Assignment of responsibility
Modelling or imitating others
Deindividuation
reduced self consciousness, inhibition, personal responsibility that sometimes occurs in a group, particularly when the members feel anonymous
Group Polarization
groups movements toward either riskier or more conservative behaviour, depending on the members’ initial dominant tendencies
Risky-Shift Phenomenon
after discussing an issue, groups support riskier decisions than decisions they made as individuals before the discussion
Groupthink
faulty decision making that occurs when a highly cohesive group strives for agreement and avoids inconsistent information
Prejudice
a learned, generally negative, attitude toward specific people solely because of their group membership
Three Components
Thoughts- stereotypes
Feelings/Emotions
Behavioural tendencies (possible discrimination)
Implicit Bias
hidden, automatic attitude that may serve as a guide to behaviours independent of a person’s awareness or control
Stereotype
a set of beliefs about the characteristic of people in a group that is generalized to all group members; the cognitive component of prejudice
Discrimination
negative behaviours directed at members of a group
In-group Favouritism
viewing members of the in-group more positively than members of an outgroup
outgroup homonogeneity effect
judging members of an outgrip as more alike and less diverse than members of the ingroup
Aggression
any behaviour intended to harm someone
biological and psychosocial factors
Frustration- Aggression Hypothesis
blocking of a desired goal (frustration) creates anger that may lead to aggression
Altruism
actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit to the helper
Why do humans act altruistically?
Evolutionary- favours the survival of ones genes
Egoistic- motivated by anticipated gain
Empathy- Altruism Hypothesis- due to empathy for someone in need
Diffusion of Responsibility
dilution of personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members
