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Psychology 121 > Unit Exam 3 > Flashcards

Unit Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Developmental Psych

A

Study of age related changes in behaviour and mental processes from conception to death

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2
Q

Nature

A

development governed by maturation (automatic, genetically predetermined signals) and critical periods (time of sensitivity to specific types of learning

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3
Q

Nurture

A

development governed by learning through observation and personal experience

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4
Q

Stages or Continuity?

A

Stage- development results from discrete, qualitative changes
Continuity- development changes at a steady, quantitative rate

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5
Q

Stability

A

Childhood personality measurements closely predict adult personality

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6
Q

Change

A

life changes can affect a person’s development from childhood to adulthood

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7
Q

Cross-Sectional Research Approach

A

different participants of various ages are compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences

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8
Q

Cohort Effect

A

groups of people having a bond due to similar experiences

causes problems in a cross sectional study, because different groups will have different knowledge

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9
Q

Longitudinal Research Approach

A

the same participants are studied at various ages to determine age-related changes

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10
Q

Conception

A

ovum unites with a sperm cell

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11
Q

Zygote

A

new cell that is created by the union of ovum and sperm

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12
Q

Germinal Period

A

Prenatal Stage

first stage, which begins with ovulation, conception, and implantation in the uterus

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13
Q

Embryonic Period

A

embryo- after implantation through the 8th week

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14
Q

Fetal Period

A

8 weeks to birth; increased growth and fine detailing

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15
Q

Proximodistal Growth

A

near to far; internal developing before external

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16
Q

Cephalocaudal Growth

A

head to tail, top to bottom

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17
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrom

A

combination of birth defects from maternal alcohol abuse

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18
Q

Prenatal Brain Development

A

begins as early as three weeks after conception

by week 11, there is a defined forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

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19
Q

Early Childhood Physical development

A

Brain- as infants learn and develop, pruning of neutrons occurs
Motor Development- initially reflexes (Involuntary movements to stimulation), then voluntary control
Sensory and Perceptual- vision is 20/20 at 2 years, hearing develops before birth

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20
Q

Adolescence

A

period of development between childhood and adulthood

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21
Q

Puberty

A

biological changes during adolescence

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22
Q

Growth Spurt

A

rapid increases in height, weight, and skeletal growth during puberty

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23
Q

Menopause

A

cessation of menstruation and decreased estrogen production in middle aged women
there is a social devaluation of agin women

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24
Q

Male Climacteric

A

gradual decline in testosterone and sperm production, weight gain, greying or loss of hair, etc

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25
Q

Ageism

A

prejudice or discrimination based on physical age

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26
Q

Programmed Theory of Dying

A

agings genetically controlled

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27
Q

Damage Theory of Dying

A

accumulated cell and organ damage ultimately causes death

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28
Q

Schemas

A

basic units of intellect; cognitive structures or patterns consisting of a number of organized ideas that grow and differentiate with experience

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29
Q

Assimilation

A

applying existing schemas to new information; new information is incorporated into existing schemas

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30
Q

Accomodation

A

adjusting existing schemas or developing new ones to fit with new information

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31
Q

Piagets 4 Stages of Development

A

Sensorimotor Stage
Pre operational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage

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32
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

Limits: lacks permanence- the understanding that things continue to exist even when not seen or heard
Abilities: uses senses and motor skills to explore and develop cognitively
Language acquisition and object permanence are steps to the next stage

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33
Q

Pre operational Stage

A

Limits: cannot perform operations, intuitive thinking, egocentric thinking, animistic thinking
Abilities: significant language and thinks symbolically

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34
Q

Concrete Operational Stage

A

Limits: cannot think abstractly
Abilities: can performs operations on concrete objects, understands reversibility, less egocentrical

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35
Q

Formal Operational Stage

A

Limits: adolescent egocentrism, personal fable, imaginary audience
Abilities: can think abstractly

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36
Q

Personal Fable

A

thinking no one can understand what you are going through

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37
Q

Imaginary Audience

A

thinking that everyone is watching you, leading to self consiousness

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38
Q

Invincibility Fable

A

thinking that you are the one who will beat the odds

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39
Q

Criticism of Piaget

A

younger children may understand things at a higher level then they can articulate
underestimates genetic and sociocultural influences

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40
Q

Vygotsky’s Theory of Development

A

a continuum of learning from tasks you can do by yourself, to tasks you can only do with help by and education individual
Zone of Proximal Development- tasks in a range that a person is close to acquiring but cannot perform without the help of another

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41
Q

Attachment

A

strong emotional bond with special others that endures over time

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42
Q

Temperament

A

a child’s personality as a baby- easy or fussy

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43
Q

Attachment Types- Mary Ainsworth Experiment

A

Secure
Anxious/ Ambivalent
Anxious/Avoidant
Disorganized/ Disoriented

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44
Q

Secure Attachment

A

seeks the closeness of mother, moderate distress when she leaves, happy when reunited

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45
Q

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

A

infant become very upset when mother leaves, shows mixed emotions when she returns

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46
Q

Anxious/ Avoidant Attachment

A

infant does not seek closeness with caregiver, little emotion when caregiver comes or leaves

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47
Q

Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

A

infant seems confused or apprehensive in the presence of the caregiver

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48
Q

Baumrind Parenting Styles

A

Permissive Neglectful
Permissive Indulgent
Authoritarian
Authoritative

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49
Q

Permissive Neglectful Parenting

A

low control, low warmth
little structure, little interest or emotion, may be actively rejecting
Children have poor social skills and little self control

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50
Q

Permissive Indulgent Parenting

A

Low Control, high warmth
parents set few limits and are very involved and emotional
Children fail to learn respect for others and tend to be impulsive, immature, out of control

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51
Q

Authoritarian Parentin

A

high control, low warmth
parents are rigid and punitive, while being low in emotion and warmth
children tend to be moody, aggressive, and have poor communication skills

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52
Q

Authoritative Parenting

A

High control, high warmth
firm limits while being highly involved and tender
children tend to be self reliant, controlled, high achievers, goal oriented, friendly, and socially competent

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53
Q

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

A

Pre conventional Stage: Punishment-Obedience and Instrumental Exchange
Conventional Stage: Good Child Orientation, Law and Order Orientation
Post conventional Level: Social Contract and Universal Ethics

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54
Q

Preconventional Stage

A

Punishment-Obedience- avoidance of punishment and ignorance of people’s intentions
Instrumental Exchange- children become aware of other opinions, morality based on reciprocity

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55
Q

Conventional Stage

A

Good Child- primary moral concern is being nice, gaining approval, judges others by intention
Law and Order- understand that if everyone violated laws, even with good intentions, there would be chaos

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56
Q

Post Conventional Stage

A

Social Contract- societal laws are obeyed because of the social contract; laws can be broken if they fail to maximize social welfare or the will of the majority
Universal Ethics- right determined by universal ethics, which apply regardless of the law

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57
Q

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

A

moral reasoning v behaviour- situational factors may be a better predictor of moral behaviour than a moral stage
more reflective of an individualistic society
possible gender bias- emphasizes more typically male values

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58
Q

Erik son’s Psychosocial Stages

A 
Trust v Mistrust
Autonomy v Shame and Doubt
Initiative v Guilt
Industry v Inferiority
Identity v Role Confusion
Intimacy v Isolation
Generativity v Stagnation
Ego Integrity v Despair
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59
Q

Sex

A

biological maleness or femaleness, including the chromosomal sex

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60
Q

Gender

A

the psychological and sociocultural meanings added to biological maleness and femaleness

61
Q

Gender Roles

A

the societal expectations for normal and appropriate male and female behaviour

62
Q

Gender Differences

A

females tend to score higher on verbal skills and males tend to score higher on math and visual spatial tests

63
Q

Social-Learning Theory (Gender Role Development)

A

rewards and punishments + observation and imitation of models= gender typed behaviour

64
Q

Cognitive Developmental Theory (Gender Role Development)

A

Social learning and active cognitive processing of gender role information -> building of gender schemas -> gender-typed behaviour

65
Q

Androgyny

A

expressing both the masculine and feminine traits found in each individual

66
Q

Developmental Challenges through Adulthood

A

Committed Relationships
Families
Resiliency
Work and Retirement

67
Q

Activity Theory of Aging

A

successful aging is fostered by a full and active commitment to life

68
Q

Disengagement Theory of Aging

A

successful aging is characterized by mutual withdrawal between the elderly and society
widely abandoned theory

69
Q

Socioemotional Selective Theory of Aging

A

a natural decline in social contact occurs as older adults become more selective with their time

70
Q

Kugler-Ross Stage Theory of Dying

A 
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
71
Q

Motivation

A

a set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behaviour, usually toward some goal

72
Q

Emotion

A

subjective feeling that includes arousal (heart pounding, cognitions (thoughts, values, and expectations), and expressive behaviours (smiles, frowns, running)

73
Q

Instinct Theory (Motivation)

A

motivation results from innate, biological, instincts

Instincts- behavioural patterns that are unlearned, always expressed in the same way, and universal in a species

74
Q

Drive-Reduction Theory (motivation)

A

motivation begins with a biological need (deficiency) that elicits a drive toward behaviours that will satisfy the original need and restore homeostasis

75
Q

Optimal Arousal Theory (motivation)

A

organisms are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal

76
Q

Incentive Theory (motivation)

A

motivation results from external stimuli that pull the organism in certain directions

77
Q

Cognitive Theory (motivation)

A

motivation is affected by expectations and attributions, or how we interpret or think about our own or other’s actions
Locus of Control

78
Q

Internal Locus of Control

A

attributes success to internal factors

79
Q

External Locus of Control

A

attributes success to external factors

80
Q

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Motivation)

A

lower needs like hunger and safety must be ratified before advancing to higher needs (such as belonging and self-actualization)

81
Q

4 Factors of Sensation Seeking

A

Thrill and Adventure Seeking
Experience Seeking
Disinhibition
Susceptibility to Boredom

82
Q

Factors of Motivation- Hunger and Eating

A

Biological- lowered nutrient levels in stomach are detected, pressure receptors signal satiety, hypothalamus regulates eating and drinking
Environmental Cues- looking at a clock, food, etc.

83
Q

Achievement Motivation

A 
desire to excel, especially in competition with others
Need for Achievement (nAch)
People with a high nAch score tend to 
Prefer moderately difficult tasks
competitive
prefer clear goals with competent feedback
responsible
persistent
more accomplished
84
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

being motivated by outside factors like rewards or punishments

85
Q

Controlling Reward

A

Reward is given for all right behaviour- child is motivated by the reward

86
Q

Approval Reward

A

Motivated by the approval of peers or parents

87
Q

Intrinsic Motivation

A

being motivated internally to do good work

88
Q

Informing Reward

A

Child acts because of internal factors and is rewarded because of it

89
Q

No Strings Treat-

A

child acts a certain way and is rewarded for that behaviour by parents or peers

90
Q

Biological Components of Emotion

A

Brain- cortex, limbic system, amygdala, thamalus

Autonomic Nervous System- sympathetic and parasympathetic

91
Q

Cognitive Component of Emotion

A

thoughts, values, expectations

92
Q

Behavioural Component

A

expressions, gestures, body positions

93
Q

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

A

Stimulus -> Physiological Arousal -> experience emotion

94
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

A

stimulus -> thalamus relays information -> physiological arousal and emotion experienced at the same time

95
Q

Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory

A

stimulus -> physiological arousal -> label -> experience the emotion

96
Q

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

A

movements of the facial muscles produce and/or intensify our subjective experience of emotion

97
Q

Cultural Emotion Similarities

A

There are some emotions with are seen in all cultures and others which are not
fear, anger, disgust, surprise, happiness are universal

98
Q

Personality

A

relatively stable and enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions

99
Q

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theory- Freud’s 4 Key Concepts

A

Levels of consciousness
Personality Structure
Defence Mechanisms
Psychosexual stages of Development

100
Q

Id

A

primitive, instinctive part of the personality, that works on the pleasure principle
seeks immediate gratification

101
Q

Ego

A

rational, decision making part of the personality that operates according to the reality principle
delays gratification of the id’s impulses until appropriate

102
Q

Superego

A

a set of ethical rules for behaviour developed from parental and societal standards for morality, operating on the morality principle
guilt if rules are violated

103
Q

Defense Mechanisms

A

the ego’s protective method of reducing anxiety by distorting reality and self deception
Examples: repression, denial, rationalization, intellectualization, regression

104
Q

Psychosexual stages of development

A 
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
105
Q

Adler’s Individual Psychology

A

we are motivate by our goals in life rather than by unconscious forces
Inferiority complex- feelings of inferiority develop from early childhood experiences of helplessness and incompetence

106
Q

Jung’s Analytical Psychology

A

Two forms of the unconscious:
Personal Unconscious- from individual experiences
Collective Unconsious- a reservoir of inherited, universal experiences
Archetypes- images and patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours residing in the collective unconscious

107
Q

Horney’s Blended Psychology

A

personality is shaped by the child’s relationship to the parents
Basic anxiety- feelings of helplessness and insecurity that adults experience because as children they felt alone and isolated in a hostile environment
first feminist criticism of Freud’s sexism

108
Q

Traits

A

relatively stable and consistent characteristics that can be used to describe someone

109
Q

Early Trait Theorists

A

Allport, Sattel, and Eysenck

110
Q

Factor Analysis

A

statistical procedure for determining the most basic units or factors in a large array of data
used by Cattle and Eysenck

111
Q

Five Factor Model

A 
Openness
Conscientiousness 
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
112
Q

Humanistic Theories

A

personality and behaviour depend on how we perceive and interpret the world
people are naturally good
Self Actualization- inborn drive to develop all of one’s talents and capabilities

113
Q

Rogers’ Theory

A

Self Concept- all the information and beliefs individuals have about their own nature, qualities and behaviour
When ones self concept and experience are congruent, a person is well adjusted, and maladjusted if not
Unconditional Positive Regard- love and acceptance with no strings attached

114
Q

Bandura’s Approach (Social Cognitive)

A

combines cognition and observation
Self Efficacy- the learned belief that one is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and achieving personal goals
Reciprocal Determinism- cognitions, behaviours, and the environment interact to produce personality

115
Q

Rotter’s Social Cognitive Theory

A

Personality and behaviour is determined by expectations and reinforcement value of outcomes
Internal Locus of Control- own efforts exert primary control
External Locus of Control- environment and external factors have primary control

116
Q

Biological Contributions to Personality

A

Brain
Neurochemistry- neurotransmitter levels have been correlated with personality traits
Genetics

117
Q

Social Psychology

A

a scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others

118
Q

Attributions

A

explanations for behaviours or events

119
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A

attributing people’s behaviour to dispositional causes rather than situational factors

120
Q

Saliency Bias

A

focusing on the most noticeable (salient) factors when explaining the causes of behaviour

121
Q

Self-Serving Bias

A

taking credit for our successes and externalizing our failures; motivated by a desire to maintain positive self esteem and a good public image

122
Q

Actor- Observer Bias

A

we tend to explain our own behaviour in terms of situational factors and others behaviour in term of disposition

123
Q

Attitudes

A

learned predisposition to respond to objects, people, and events in a particular way

124
Q

Three Elements of Attitude

A

Affective- emotions
Cognitive- thoughts
Behavioural- actions

125
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

a feeling of discomfort caused by a discrepancy between and attitude and a behaviour

126
Q

Dealing with Cognitive Dissonance

A

Change perceived importance of one of the conflicting cognitions
Modify one of the conflicting cognitions
Add additional cognitions
Deny that conflicting cognitions are related

127
Q

Conformity

A

changing behaviour because of real or perceived group pressure

128
Q

Normative social influence

A

conforming to group pressure out of a need for approval and acceptance

129
Q

Norm

A

cultural rule of behaviour prescribing what is acceptable in a given situation

130
Q

Informational Social influence

A

conforming because of a need for information and direction

131
Q

Reference Groups

A

people we conform to because we like and admire them and want to be life them

132
Q

Obediance

A

following direct commands, usually from an authority figure

133
Q

Four Factors to Obedience (Milgram)

A

Legitimacy and closeness of the authority figure
Remoteness of the victim
Assignment of responsibility
Modelling or imitating others

134
Q

Deindividuation

A

reduced self consciousness, inhibition, personal responsibility that sometimes occurs in a group, particularly when the members feel anonymous

135
Q

Group Polarization

A

groups movements toward either riskier or more conservative behaviour, depending on the members’ initial dominant tendencies

136
Q

Risky-Shift Phenomenon

A

after discussing an issue, groups support riskier decisions than decisions they made as individuals before the discussion

137
Q

Groupthink

A

faulty decision making that occurs when a highly cohesive group strives for agreement and avoids inconsistent information

138
Q

Prejudice

A

a learned, generally negative, attitude toward specific people solely because of their group membership
Three Components
Thoughts- stereotypes
Feelings/Emotions
Behavioural tendencies (possible discrimination)

139
Q

Implicit Bias

A

hidden, automatic attitude that may serve as a guide to behaviours independent of a person’s awareness or control

140
Q

Stereotype

A

a set of beliefs about the characteristic of people in a group that is generalized to all group members; the cognitive component of prejudice

141
Q

Discrimination

A

negative behaviours directed at members of a group

142
Q

In-group Favouritism

A

viewing members of the in-group more positively than members of an outgroup

143
Q

outgroup homonogeneity effect

A

judging members of an outgrip as more alike and less diverse than members of the ingroup

144
Q

Aggression

A

any behaviour intended to harm someone

biological and psychosocial factors

145
Q

Frustration- Aggression Hypothesis

A

blocking of a desired goal (frustration) creates anger that may lead to aggression

146
Q

Altruism

A

actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit to the helper

147
Q

Why do humans act altruistically?

A

Evolutionary- favours the survival of ones genes
Egoistic- motivated by anticipated gain
Empathy- Altruism Hypothesis- due to empathy for someone in need

148
Q

Diffusion of Responsibility

A

dilution of personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members

Psychology 121 (6 decks)

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