Unit Exam 2 Flashcards
Consciousness
An organisms awareness of its own self and surroundings
Alternate states of consciousness (ASC)
Mental states found during sleep, dreaming, psychoactive drug use, hypnosis, etc
Low Level of Awareness
Sleeping, dreaming, anesthesia, coma
Middle Awareness
Automatic processing for activities that require minimal attention
IE walking while talking on the phone
High Awareness
Controlled processing for activities that require focus, like learning to drive
Circadian Rhythms
Fluctuation of things such as alertness or body temperature in fairly regular 24 hour cycles
Can be easily disrupted
Sleep Deprivation
Not getting enough sleep
Leads to significant mood alterations, decreased self esteem, reduced concentration, motivation, and motor skills, increased irritability and cortisol, lapses in attention
Sleep cycle
5 Steps
4 steps of NREM and 1 REM
Repeats about 4-5 times per night
REM Sleep
Stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movement, high frequency brain waves, paralysis of large muscles, dreaming
Important for learning and consolidation of memories
NREM
Stages 1-4 of sleep with stage 1 as the lightest level and stage 4 as the deepest level
Need for NREM is satisfied before REM
Adaption/Protection Theory
Sleep evolved to conserve energy and as a protection from predators; also served as part of the circadian cycle
Repair/Restoration Theory
Sleep serves a recuperative function, allowing organisms to repair or replenish key factors
Growth/Development Theory
Sleep coincides with the release of growth hormones from the pituitary gland, and we need less sleep as we age because we grow less
Learning/Memory Theory
Sleep is important for learning and the consolidation, storage, and maintenance of memories
Wish Fulfullment Theory
Our dreams are our unconscious desires and thoughts coming to the surface (manifest, latent content)
Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
Dreams are random brain activity. Your personality, motivations, memories, and experiences guide the construction of dreams
Information Processing Idea
Dreams allow us to process, assimilate, and update information in our brain
Insomnia
Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
Sudden, irresistible onset of sleep during waking hours
Sleep Apnea
Repeated interruption of breathing while asleep
Nightmares
Bad dreams during REM sleep
Night terrors
Abrupt awakenings with feelings of panic during NREM
Psychoactive drugs
Chemicals that change conscious awareness, mood, or perception
Drug Abuse
Drug use that causes emotional or physical harm to the user or others
Addiction
Broad term describing a compulsion to use the specific drug or engage in a certain activity
Psychological Dependence
Mental desire or craving to achieve a drugs affect
Physical dependence
Changes and bodily processes that make the drug necessary for minimum daily functioning
Tolerance
Bodily adjustment to higher and higher levels of a drug which leads to decreased sensitivity
Cross Tolerence
When using one drug increases tolerance for another drug
Withdrawal
Discomfort and distress, including physical pain and intense cravings, experienced after stopping the use of addictive drugs
Agonist Drugs
Drugs which enhance the synaptic transmission they increase the neuron’s ability to synthesize more transmitter molecules, bind to the receptor to send more signals, and block reuptake
Antagonist Drugs
Inhibit synaptic transmission
Block the receptor site and decrease the neurons ability to synthesize, store, and release neurotransmitters
Depressants
Drugs that act on the CNS to suppress or slow bodily processes and reduce overall responsiveness
Ex alcohol
Stimulants
Drugs that act on the brain and NS to increase overall activity and general responsiveness
Ex caffeine
Opiates
Drugs derived from opium that mimic the brains natural endorphins, which numb pain and elevate mood. Aka narcotics. Over time they decrease our ability to create our own endorphins
Ex heroin
Hallucinogens
Drugs that produce sensory or perceptual distortions called hallucinations
Aka psychedelics
Ex LSD
Club Drugs
Psychoactive drugs commonly used at parties or clubs
Meditation
Group of techniques designed of refocus attention, block out distractions, and produce an altered state of consciousness
Flow
Being in the zone; when you enter an activity where you lose track of time because you are zoned in
Hypnosis
Trance like state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus
Learning
Relatively permanent change in behaviour or mental processes caused by experience
Conditioning
Process of learning associations between stimuli and behavioural responses
Classical conditioning
Involuntary
Learning through involuntary paired associations
Occurs when a NS is paired with an US to elicit a CR
Unconditioned stimulus
An unlearned stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a UR without previous conditioning
Unconditioned response
Unlearned reaction to a US without previous conditioning
Neutral stimulus
Stimulus that prior to conditioning does not naturally bring around the response of interest
Conditioned stimulus
Previously NS that through repeated pairing with an US now elicits a CR
Conditioned response
Learned reaction to a CS that occurs because of repeated pairings with an US
Conditioned Emotional Response
Classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus
Watson and Classical Conditioning
Proposed that likes, dislikes, phobias, prejudices, and love are a result of conditioning
6 Principle of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Higher Order Conditioning
Acquisition
NS and US are paired, and the NS become the CS, eliciting a CR
Stimulus Generalization
CR is elicited not only by the CS, but also by stimuli similar to the CS
Stimulus Discrimination
Certain stimuli similar to the CS do not elicit the CR
Extinction
CS is presented alone without the US; eventually the CS no longer elicits the CR
Spontaneous Recovery
Sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished CR
Higher Order Conditioning
NS becomes CS through repeated pairing with a previous CR
Operant Conditioning
Voluntary
Learning through voluntary responses and their consequences
Reinforcement increases behavioural tendencies whereas punishment decreases them
Reinforcement
A consequence that strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur
Punishment
A consequence that weakens a response and makes it less likely to occur
Primary Reinforcers
Inherently valuable reinforcers; we don’t need to learn that these things are good
Secondary reinforcers
It doesn’t have value until we are taught what they mean/are worth
Positive reinforcement
Adding something to increase behaviour
Negative reinforcement
Take away something to increase behaviour
Positive punishment
Adding something to decrease behaviour
Negative punishment
Take away something to decrease behaviour
Continuous reinforcement
Every correct response is reinforced
Partial Reinforcement
Some but not all correct responses are reinforced
Once behaviour is established, moving to a system of partial reinforcement will help the behaviour to last longer
Ratio Schedule
Partial reinforcement which is response based
Fixed Ratio
Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined number of responses; response rate scallops, going up before reinforcement and drops off after reinforcement
Variable ratio
Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses
High response rates and resistant to extinction
Interval schedules
Partial reinforcement that is time based
Fixed interval
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed period of time
Scalloping of behaviour
Variable interval
Reinforcement occurs after varying periods of time
Low response rates but steady
Shaping
Reinforcement by a series of successively improved steps leading to the desired end
Insight learning
The sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution
Latent learning
Hidden learning that exists without behavioural signs
Cognitive maps
Mental image of a three dimensional space that an organism has navigated
Observational learning
Learning new behaviours or information by watching and imitating other
4 Factors of Social Learning
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Reinforcement
Memory
An internal record or representation of some prior event or experience
Memory is a constructive process- organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval Memory Model
Encoding- like a computer, we take the memory and convert it into something we can understand
Storage- we store information to retain it over time
Retrieval- we can later retrieve the information
Three Stage Memory Model
Sensory
Short term memory
Long term memory
Sensory Memory Stage
Hold sensory information for 1-4 seconds and then decides to ignore it or pass it on
Iconic Memory
Brief visual memory that allows us to see streaks of light when the light moves
Echoic Memory
Brief auditory memory that allows us to understand something we heard even if we didn’t originally pay attention
Short term memory
Holds information temporarily for analysis and retrieved from the long term memory
Capacity- only 5-9 items
Duration- 30 seconds without rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal
Repeating information over and over to maintain it in short term memory
Chunking
Grouping delegate pieces of information into a single unit
Long Term Memory
Relatively permanently store memories and also retrieves them
Explicit/declarative memory
Memory that needs conscious recall
Semantic- facts and general knowledge
Episodic- personal experiences and events
Implicit/ nondeclarative memory
Memory without conscious recall
Procedural- motor skills and habits
Classically Conditioned- conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli
Priming- earlier exposure facilitates retrieval
Organizing Memories
Arranging a number of related items into categories that are further divided and sub divided
Makes material more understandable and memorable
Elaborative Rehearsal
The process of linking new information to previously stored information in LTM
Mnemonic Devices
Learning tricks that help you retain information
Acronyms, outline organization, method of loci
Declarative Knowledge
Knowing about something
Rehearsal, organization, elaboration, and visual images help learn declarative memory
Procedural Knowledge
Knowing about becomes knowing
Demonstration, rehearsal of steps, practice and feedback, and break it down are ways to learn this
Retrieval Cue
Clue or prompt that helps stimulate recall or retrieval of a stored piece of information from LTM
Recognition
Retrieving a memory using a specific cue
Recall
Retrieving a memory using general nonspecific cue
Encoding specificity Principle
Retrieval of information is improved when conditions of recovery are similar to the condition when the information was encoded
State Dependent Retrieval
Retrieval is improved when you are in the same state as when you learned it
Decay Theory
Memory in LTM deteriorates over time and therefore cannot be retrieved
Interference Theory
Forgetting due to proactive or retroactive interference
Retroactive- new information interferes with old
Proactive- old information interferes with new
Motivate Forgetting Theory
Painful memories are repressed or forgotten
Encoding Failure Theory
Material from STM was never encoded to LTM
Retrieval Failure Theory
Information is momentarily inaccessible
Misinformation effect
Memory distortion resulting from misleading post event information
Sleep effect
Information from and unreliable source which was initially discounted
Later gains credibility because the source is forgotten
Source Amnesia
Forgetting the true source of a memory
Information Overload
Trying to learn too much at one time
Serial Position Effect
Information at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of a list is remembered better than material in the middle
Cultural Factors
Cultural practices (ie storytelling) influence how we remember information
Memory Distortions
We have a need for logic and consistency. Therefore our brains make corrections to memories so they make sense
We shape our memories for the sake of efficiency
Memory and the Criminal Justice System
Unreliability of eyewitness testimony because memories can be altered by information provided after the fact
Fals and repressed memories
Thinking
Forming ideas, drawing conclusions, expressing thoughts, comprehending the thoughts of others
Occurs all throughout the brain but a lot happens in the prefrontal cortex
Mental image
Previously story sensory experiences
Visual, auditory, olfactory, etc
Concepts
Mental representations of a group or category that shares similar characteristics
Strategies for Learning Concepts
Prototypes- the best example or typical representative of that concept
Artificial Concepts- formed from logical rules or definitions
Hierarchies- grouping concepts as subcategories within broader concepts
Preparation (Step 1 Problem Solving)
Define ultimate goal, outline limits and or desires, and seperate the negotiable from the non negotiable
Production (Step 2 of Problem Solving)
Algorithms- logical step by step procedure that will always produce a solution
Heuristic- a simple rule or short cut that does not guarantee a solution but narrows alternatives
Evaluation (step 3 of problem solving)
Evaluate solutions generated in step 2 to see if they match criteria
If yes- problem solved!
If no, repeat step 2
Mental set
Persisting in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past rather than trying new ones
Functional fixedness
Tendency to think of an object as functioning only in it usual or customary way
Confirmation Bias
Preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs while ignoring or dicounting contradictory evidence
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood or probability of an event based on how readily available the other instances of the event are in memory
Representativeness Heuristic
Estimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match or represent the previous prototype
Recognition heuristic
When judgements are made by relying on one single cue while ignoring other information
Divergent Thinking
Thinking that produces many alternatives from a single starting point
Investment Theory
Using resources in order to make original ideas popular and worth more
Why does creativity and divergent thinking decrease as we get older?
Educate and socialized in a certain way
Educated in groups- we do nothing as an individual
Language
A form of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to specified rules
Phonemes
The smallest distinctive sound unit that makes up every language
Morphemes
The smallest units that carry meaning; created by combining phonemes
Function morphemes
Prefix s and suffixes
Content morphemes
Root words
Grammar
A system of rules used to generate acceptable language, thus enabling us to communicate with and understand others
Syntax
A system of rules for putting words in order
Semantics
A system of using words to create meaning
Children learning language through nature
Children are predicted with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) enabling them to analyze language and extract basic rules of grammar
Children learn language through nurture
Children learn language via a complex system of rewards, punishments, and imitation
Prelinguistic Stage
0-12 months
Crying becomes more purposeful
Cooing at 2-3 months
Babbling at 4-6 months
Linguistic Stage 1
12m-2y
Babbling resembles the language of the environment and child understands sounds relate to meaning
Speech consists of one word utterances
Expressive ability more than doubled once words are joined into short phrases
Overextension- using words to include objects that do not fit the words meaning
Linguistic Stage 2
2-5y
Telegraphic speech- omitting nonessential connecting words
Vocabulary increases at a phenomenal rate
Child acquires a wide variety of grammar rules
Over Generalization- applying basic rules of grammar even to cases that are exceptions to the rule
Intelligence
The global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment
Spearman and Intelligence
Intelligence is a general single factor (g) responsible for reasoning, problem solving, and cognition
Cattell and Intelligence
Believed g was composed of two subtypes Fluid Intelligence (gf) refers to innate, inherited reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing Crystallized Intelligence (gc) refers to the store of knowledge and skills handed through experience and education
Gardners Multiple Intelligences
Idea that there are many ways that people understand and learn and express their ideas about the world
Can this Intelligence be measured?
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Analytical Intelligence, Creative and Practical
Analytical Intelligence
Good at analysis, evaluation, judgement, and comparison skills
Can be assessed through intelligence tests which assess the meaning of words based on context and how to solve number series problems
Creative Intelligence
Good at invention, coping with novelty, and imagination skills
Assessed through open ended tasks, writing a story, drawing, solving a scientific problem involving insight
Practical Intelligence
Good at application, implementation, execution, and utilization skills
Assessed through tasks requiring solutions to practical personal problems
Emotional Intelligence
Involves knowing and managing ones emotions, empathizing with others, and maintaining satisfying relationships
Stanford- Binet IQ
Intelligence Quotient expressed as an individual score compared to a national average for similarly aged people
Wechsler intelligence testing
Tests verbal and performance areas of explaining, comprehending and re-creation
Good tests are…
Standardized- have norms established on a representative group and testing procedures must be uniform
Reliability- test scores must be consistent and reproducible
Validity- the rest must actually measure what it is designed to measure
Intellectual Disability
1-3% of the general population
Of that, 85% usually are able to become self sufficient
Mental Giftedneas
People who are in the top 1-2% of IQ scores
Often earn excellent grades and are socially well adjusted
Are taller and stronger
Are more likely to be highly successful
Are just as likely as others to divorce, commit suicide, have addictions
The brain and intelligence
Significant correlation between brain size and intelligence, and speed of accurate decisions and intelligence
Brain is more efficient in intelligent people
Group Differences in IQ
Differences within groups are mostly due to genetics
Differences between groups are mostly due to environment
Stereotype Threat
Negative stereotypes about minority groups cause some members to doubt their abilities
