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Psychology 121 > Unit Exam 2 > Flashcards

Unit Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Consciousness

A

An organisms awareness of its own self and surroundings

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2
Q

Alternate states of consciousness (ASC)

A

Mental states found during sleep, dreaming, psychoactive drug use, hypnosis, etc

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3
Q

Low Level of Awareness

A

Sleeping, dreaming, anesthesia, coma

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4
Q

Middle Awareness

A

Automatic processing for activities that require minimal attention
IE walking while talking on the phone

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5
Q

High Awareness

A

Controlled processing for activities that require focus, like learning to drive

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6
Q

Circadian Rhythms

A

Fluctuation of things such as alertness or body temperature in fairly regular 24 hour cycles
Can be easily disrupted

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7
Q

Sleep Deprivation

A

Not getting enough sleep
Leads to significant mood alterations, decreased self esteem, reduced concentration, motivation, and motor skills, increased irritability and cortisol, lapses in attention

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8
Q

Sleep cycle

A

5 Steps
4 steps of NREM and 1 REM
Repeats about 4-5 times per night

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9
Q

REM Sleep

A

Stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movement, high frequency brain waves, paralysis of large muscles, dreaming
Important for learning and consolidation of memories

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10
Q

NREM

A

Stages 1-4 of sleep with stage 1 as the lightest level and stage 4 as the deepest level
Need for NREM is satisfied before REM

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11
Q

Adaption/Protection Theory

A

Sleep evolved to conserve energy and as a protection from predators; also served as part of the circadian cycle

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12
Q

Repair/Restoration Theory

A

Sleep serves a recuperative function, allowing organisms to repair or replenish key factors

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13
Q

Growth/Development Theory

A

Sleep coincides with the release of growth hormones from the pituitary gland, and we need less sleep as we age because we grow less

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14
Q

Learning/Memory Theory

A

Sleep is important for learning and the consolidation, storage, and maintenance of memories

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15
Q

Wish Fulfullment Theory

A

Our dreams are our unconscious desires and thoughts coming to the surface (manifest, latent content)

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16
Q

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

A

Dreams are random brain activity. Your personality, motivations, memories, and experiences guide the construction of dreams

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17
Q

Information Processing Idea

A

Dreams allow us to process, assimilate, and update information in our brain

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18
Q

Insomnia

A

Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep

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19
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Sudden, irresistible onset of sleep during waking hours

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20
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

Repeated interruption of breathing while asleep

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21
Q

Nightmares

A

Bad dreams during REM sleep

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22
Q

Night terrors

A

Abrupt awakenings with feelings of panic during NREM

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23
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

Chemicals that change conscious awareness, mood, or perception

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24
Q

Drug Abuse

A

Drug use that causes emotional or physical harm to the user or others

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25
Q

Addiction

A

Broad term describing a compulsion to use the specific drug or engage in a certain activity

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26
Q

Psychological Dependence

A

Mental desire or craving to achieve a drugs affect

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27
Q

Physical dependence

A

Changes and bodily processes that make the drug necessary for minimum daily functioning

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28
Q

Tolerance

A

Bodily adjustment to higher and higher levels of a drug which leads to decreased sensitivity

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29
Q

Cross Tolerence

A

When using one drug increases tolerance for another drug

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30
Q

Withdrawal

A

Discomfort and distress, including physical pain and intense cravings, experienced after stopping the use of addictive drugs

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31
Q

Agonist Drugs

A

Drugs which enhance the synaptic transmission they increase the neuron’s ability to synthesize more transmitter molecules, bind to the receptor to send more signals, and block reuptake

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32
Q

Antagonist Drugs

A

Inhibit synaptic transmission

Block the receptor site and decrease the neurons ability to synthesize, store, and release neurotransmitters

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33
Q

Depressants

A

Drugs that act on the CNS to suppress or slow bodily processes and reduce overall responsiveness
Ex alcohol

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34
Q

Stimulants

A

Drugs that act on the brain and NS to increase overall activity and general responsiveness
Ex caffeine

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35
Q

Opiates

A

Drugs derived from opium that mimic the brains natural endorphins, which numb pain and elevate mood. Aka narcotics. Over time they decrease our ability to create our own endorphins
Ex heroin

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36
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Drugs that produce sensory or perceptual distortions called hallucinations
Aka psychedelics
Ex LSD

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37
Q

Club Drugs

A

Psychoactive drugs commonly used at parties or clubs

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38
Q

Meditation

A

Group of techniques designed of refocus attention, block out distractions, and produce an altered state of consciousness

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39
Q

Flow

A

Being in the zone; when you enter an activity where you lose track of time because you are zoned in

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40
Q

Hypnosis

A

Trance like state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus

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41
Q

Learning

A

Relatively permanent change in behaviour or mental processes caused by experience

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42
Q

Conditioning

A

Process of learning associations between stimuli and behavioural responses

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43
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Involuntary
Learning through involuntary paired associations
Occurs when a NS is paired with an US to elicit a CR

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44
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

An unlearned stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a UR without previous conditioning

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45
Q

Unconditioned response

A

Unlearned reaction to a US without previous conditioning

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46
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Stimulus that prior to conditioning does not naturally bring around the response of interest

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47
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

Previously NS that through repeated pairing with an US now elicits a CR

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48
Q

Conditioned response

A

Learned reaction to a CS that occurs because of repeated pairings with an US

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49
Q

Conditioned Emotional Response

A

Classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus

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50
Q

Watson and Classical Conditioning

A

Proposed that likes, dislikes, phobias, prejudices, and love are a result of conditioning

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51
Q

6 Principle of Classical Conditioning

A 
Acquisition
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Higher Order Conditioning
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52
Q

Acquisition

A

NS and US are paired, and the NS become the CS, eliciting a CR

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53
Q

Stimulus Generalization

A

CR is elicited not only by the CS, but also by stimuli similar to the CS

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54
Q

Stimulus Discrimination

A

Certain stimuli similar to the CS do not elicit the CR

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55
Q

Extinction

A

CS is presented alone without the US; eventually the CS no longer elicits the CR

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56
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

Sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished CR

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57
Q

Higher Order Conditioning

A

NS becomes CS through repeated pairing with a previous CR

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58
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Voluntary
Learning through voluntary responses and their consequences
Reinforcement increases behavioural tendencies whereas punishment decreases them

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59
Q

Reinforcement

A

A consequence that strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur

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60
Q

Punishment

A

A consequence that weakens a response and makes it less likely to occur

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61
Q

Primary Reinforcers

A

Inherently valuable reinforcers; we don’t need to learn that these things are good

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62
Q

Secondary reinforcers

A

It doesn’t have value until we are taught what they mean/are worth

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63
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Adding something to increase behaviour

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64
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Take away something to increase behaviour

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65
Q

Positive punishment

A

Adding something to decrease behaviour

66
Q

Negative punishment

A

Take away something to decrease behaviour

67
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Every correct response is reinforced

68
Q

Partial Reinforcement

A

Some but not all correct responses are reinforced

Once behaviour is established, moving to a system of partial reinforcement will help the behaviour to last longer

69
Q

Ratio Schedule

A

Partial reinforcement which is response based

70
Q

Fixed Ratio

A

Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined number of responses; response rate scallops, going up before reinforcement and drops off after reinforcement

71
Q

Variable ratio

A

Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses

High response rates and resistant to extinction

72
Q

Interval schedules

A

Partial reinforcement that is time based

73
Q

Fixed interval

A

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed period of time

Scalloping of behaviour

74
Q

Variable interval

A

Reinforcement occurs after varying periods of time

Low response rates but steady

75
Q

Shaping

A

Reinforcement by a series of successively improved steps leading to the desired end

76
Q

Insight learning

A

The sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution

77
Q

Latent learning

A

Hidden learning that exists without behavioural signs

78
Q

Cognitive maps

A

Mental image of a three dimensional space that an organism has navigated

79
Q

Observational learning

A

Learning new behaviours or information by watching and imitating other

80
Q

4 Factors of Social Learning

A

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Reinforcement

81
Q

Memory

A

An internal record or representation of some prior event or experience

Memory is a constructive process- organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories

82
Q

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval Memory Model

A

Encoding- like a computer, we take the memory and convert it into something we can understand
Storage- we store information to retain it over time
Retrieval- we can later retrieve the information

83
Q

Three Stage Memory Model

A

Sensory
Short term memory
Long term memory

84
Q

Sensory Memory Stage

A

Hold sensory information for 1-4 seconds and then decides to ignore it or pass it on

85
Q

Iconic Memory

A

Brief visual memory that allows us to see streaks of light when the light moves

86
Q

Echoic Memory

A

Brief auditory memory that allows us to understand something we heard even if we didn’t originally pay attention

87
Q

Short term memory

A

Holds information temporarily for analysis and retrieved from the long term memory
Capacity- only 5-9 items
Duration- 30 seconds without rehearsal

88
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

Repeating information over and over to maintain it in short term memory

89
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping delegate pieces of information into a single unit

90
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Relatively permanently store memories and also retrieves them

91
Q

Explicit/declarative memory

A

Memory that needs conscious recall
Semantic- facts and general knowledge
Episodic- personal experiences and events

92
Q

Implicit/ nondeclarative memory

A

Memory without conscious recall
Procedural- motor skills and habits
Classically Conditioned- conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli
Priming- earlier exposure facilitates retrieval

93
Q

Organizing Memories

A

Arranging a number of related items into categories that are further divided and sub divided
Makes material more understandable and memorable

94
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

The process of linking new information to previously stored information in LTM

95
Q

Mnemonic Devices

A

Learning tricks that help you retain information

Acronyms, outline organization, method of loci

96
Q

Declarative Knowledge

A

Knowing about something

Rehearsal, organization, elaboration, and visual images help learn declarative memory

97
Q

Procedural Knowledge

A

Knowing about becomes knowing

Demonstration, rehearsal of steps, practice and feedback, and break it down are ways to learn this

98
Q

Retrieval Cue

A

Clue or prompt that helps stimulate recall or retrieval of a stored piece of information from LTM

99
Q

Recognition

A

Retrieving a memory using a specific cue

100
Q

Recall

A

Retrieving a memory using general nonspecific cue

101
Q

Encoding specificity Principle

A

Retrieval of information is improved when conditions of recovery are similar to the condition when the information was encoded

102
Q

State Dependent Retrieval

A

Retrieval is improved when you are in the same state as when you learned it

103
Q

Decay Theory

A

Memory in LTM deteriorates over time and therefore cannot be retrieved

104
Q

Interference Theory

A

Forgetting due to proactive or retroactive interference
Retroactive- new information interferes with old
Proactive- old information interferes with new

105
Q

Motivate Forgetting Theory

A

Painful memories are repressed or forgotten

106
Q

Encoding Failure Theory

A

Material from STM was never encoded to LTM

107
Q

Retrieval Failure Theory

A

Information is momentarily inaccessible

108
Q

Misinformation effect

A

Memory distortion resulting from misleading post event information

109
Q

Sleep effect

A

Information from and unreliable source which was initially discounted
Later gains credibility because the source is forgotten

110
Q

Source Amnesia

A

Forgetting the true source of a memory

111
Q

Information Overload

A

Trying to learn too much at one time

112
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

Information at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of a list is remembered better than material in the middle

113
Q

Cultural Factors

A

Cultural practices (ie storytelling) influence how we remember information

114
Q

Memory Distortions

A

We have a need for logic and consistency. Therefore our brains make corrections to memories so they make sense
We shape our memories for the sake of efficiency

115
Q

Memory and the Criminal Justice System

A

Unreliability of eyewitness testimony because memories can be altered by information provided after the fact
Fals and repressed memories

116
Q

Thinking

A

Forming ideas, drawing conclusions, expressing thoughts, comprehending the thoughts of others
Occurs all throughout the brain but a lot happens in the prefrontal cortex

117
Q

Mental image

A

Previously story sensory experiences

Visual, auditory, olfactory, etc

118
Q

Concepts

A

Mental representations of a group or category that shares similar characteristics

119
Q

Strategies for Learning Concepts

A

Prototypes- the best example or typical representative of that concept
Artificial Concepts- formed from logical rules or definitions
Hierarchies- grouping concepts as subcategories within broader concepts

120
Q

Preparation (Step 1 Problem Solving)

A

Define ultimate goal, outline limits and or desires, and seperate the negotiable from the non negotiable

121
Q

Production (Step 2 of Problem Solving)

A

Algorithms- logical step by step procedure that will always produce a solution
Heuristic- a simple rule or short cut that does not guarantee a solution but narrows alternatives

122
Q

Evaluation (step 3 of problem solving)

A

Evaluate solutions generated in step 2 to see if they match criteria
If yes- problem solved!
If no, repeat step 2

123
Q

Mental set

A

Persisting in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past rather than trying new ones

124
Q

Functional fixedness

A

Tendency to think of an object as functioning only in it usual or customary way

125
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs while ignoring or dicounting contradictory evidence

126
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Judging the likelihood or probability of an event based on how readily available the other instances of the event are in memory

127
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

Estimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match or represent the previous prototype

128
Q

Recognition heuristic

A

When judgements are made by relying on one single cue while ignoring other information

129
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

Thinking that produces many alternatives from a single starting point

130
Q

Investment Theory

A

Using resources in order to make original ideas popular and worth more

131
Q

Why does creativity and divergent thinking decrease as we get older?

A

Educate and socialized in a certain way

Educated in groups- we do nothing as an individual

132
Q

Language

A

A form of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to specified rules

133
Q

Phonemes

A

The smallest distinctive sound unit that makes up every language

134
Q

Morphemes

A

The smallest units that carry meaning; created by combining phonemes

135
Q

Function morphemes

A

Prefix s and suffixes

136
Q

Content morphemes

A

Root words

137
Q

Grammar

A

A system of rules used to generate acceptable language, thus enabling us to communicate with and understand others

138
Q

Syntax

A

A system of rules for putting words in order

139
Q

Semantics

A

A system of using words to create meaning

140
Q

Children learning language through nature

A

Children are predicted with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) enabling them to analyze language and extract basic rules of grammar

141
Q

Children learn language through nurture

A

Children learn language via a complex system of rewards, punishments, and imitation

142
Q

Prelinguistic Stage

A

0-12 months
Crying becomes more purposeful
Cooing at 2-3 months
Babbling at 4-6 months

143
Q

Linguistic Stage 1

A

12m-2y
Babbling resembles the language of the environment and child understands sounds relate to meaning
Speech consists of one word utterances
Expressive ability more than doubled once words are joined into short phrases
Overextension- using words to include objects that do not fit the words meaning

144
Q

Linguistic Stage 2

A

2-5y
Telegraphic speech- omitting nonessential connecting words
Vocabulary increases at a phenomenal rate
Child acquires a wide variety of grammar rules
Over Generalization- applying basic rules of grammar even to cases that are exceptions to the rule

145
Q

Intelligence

A

The global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment

146
Q

Spearman and Intelligence

A

Intelligence is a general single factor (g) responsible for reasoning, problem solving, and cognition

147
Q

Cattell and Intelligence

A 
Believed g was composed of two subtypes 
Fluid Intelligence (gf) refers to innate, inherited reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing 
Crystallized Intelligence (gc) refers to the store of knowledge and skills handed through experience and education
148
Q

Gardners Multiple Intelligences

A

Idea that there are many ways that people understand and learn and express their ideas about the world
Can this Intelligence be measured?

149
Q

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

A

Analytical Intelligence, Creative and Practical

150
Q

Analytical Intelligence

A

Good at analysis, evaluation, judgement, and comparison skills
Can be assessed through intelligence tests which assess the meaning of words based on context and how to solve number series problems

151
Q

Creative Intelligence

A

Good at invention, coping with novelty, and imagination skills
Assessed through open ended tasks, writing a story, drawing, solving a scientific problem involving insight

152
Q

Practical Intelligence

A

Good at application, implementation, execution, and utilization skills
Assessed through tasks requiring solutions to practical personal problems

153
Q

Emotional Intelligence

A

Involves knowing and managing ones emotions, empathizing with others, and maintaining satisfying relationships

154
Q

Stanford- Binet IQ

A

Intelligence Quotient expressed as an individual score compared to a national average for similarly aged people

155
Q

Wechsler intelligence testing

A

Tests verbal and performance areas of explaining, comprehending and re-creation

156
Q

Good tests are…

A

Standardized- have norms established on a representative group and testing procedures must be uniform
Reliability- test scores must be consistent and reproducible
Validity- the rest must actually measure what it is designed to measure

157
Q

Intellectual Disability

A

1-3% of the general population

Of that, 85% usually are able to become self sufficient

158
Q

Mental Giftedneas

A

People who are in the top 1-2% of IQ scores
Often earn excellent grades and are socially well adjusted
Are taller and stronger
Are more likely to be highly successful
Are just as likely as others to divorce, commit suicide, have addictions

159
Q

The brain and intelligence

A

Significant correlation between brain size and intelligence, and speed of accurate decisions and intelligence
Brain is more efficient in intelligent people

160
Q

Group Differences in IQ

A

Differences within groups are mostly due to genetics

Differences between groups are mostly due to environment

161
Q

Stereotype Threat

A

Negative stereotypes about minority groups cause some members to doubt their abilities

Psychology 121 (6 decks)

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