Unit 9: Motivation and Emotion (Chapter 9) Flashcards
Motive
Internal force that moves individuals to act in a certain way.
Instinct
Innate, genetically endowed, do not require learning. Triggered by some feature of the environment. Compel humans and other animals.
Homeostasis
Process by which organisms maintain stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment (E.g, specific temperature, pH, blood sugar & sodium levels). Must compensate for changes in the environment to keep the internal environment within range.
Drive
Internal state of arousal or tension caused by deviation from homeostatic set-point.
• Drives organisms to engage in activities that will reduce this tension & restore homeostasis (drive-reduction theory of motivation).
E.g, Internal temperature regulation: Hypothalamus senses deviations from set-point, activates SNS: constriction of peripheral blood vessels, shivering.
Congenital insensitivity to pain
Rare genetic disease characterized by complete inability to perceive pain.
• Case studies of individuals with CIP:
• Repeated injuries (e.g., fractures, burns, oral wounds due to self-biting)
• Infections from untreated wounds
• Reduced life expectancy
Pain is crucial for protecting from injuries
Avoidance of pain
Pain is our body’s way of telling us to pay attention to something that could cause tissue injury or death.
• Captures attention and motivates action like an alarm!
• Supersedes other goals we may have in the moment also like an alarm!
Recall: Humans have a universal need to form positive, stable relationships with other people.
- Exclusion from the group would be tantamount to death, so it is helpful to have a social exclusion (“pain”) mechanism.
Pain matrix and its contribution to the regulation of motivated behaviour
The pain matrix consists of a distributed set of brain regions, including the amygdala, that underlie both the sensory and the emotional components of pain and give rise to the associated behavioural response, which is often to withdraw.
Experiences of social loss or exclusion (e.g., being left out of a game, recalling an unwanted breakup) may engage some of the regions in the pain matrix (the regions responding to pain). This is why we tend not to want to be excluded out of situations, and thus are motivated to do what needs to be done to fit in.
Sensory vs affective components of pain
Pain signals provide:
- Specific information about what is happening (There’s a burning sensation in my right hand)
- This is the sensory component of pain (e.g. somatosensory cortex)
- Motivation for a specific response (I need to move my hand away from the stove). This is what makes it feel bad, so you act on it. Its flavor (TASTY)
- This is the affective component of pain (e.g, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, anterior insula)
- Social experiences make use of this component
Reward
Used 3 ways in the psychology literature:
• Something we want
• Something we like
• Something that serves as a reinforcer in learning
Wanting
The desire for a reward, sense of anticipation
• Typically measured by amount of effort the individual will exert to obtain the reward
→ Might be associated with the delivery of a reward, but not enjoyment.
• “Wanting” more widely distributed throughout the nucleus accumbens shell and core.
• Imperfect dissociation with neurochemicals, though dopamine is more for wanting.
Ex: Rats nibbling on a metal cup in which food had previously been delivered.
Liking
The subjective feeling of pleasure we experience when we receive a reward.
- “Hedonic gloss”, sheen of pleasure
- Hedonic “hot spots” in the nucleus accumbens shell for “liking”
- Imperfect dissociation with neurochemicals, though opioids are more for liking.
Operationalized through the tongue positions of liking food (babies, monkeys).
Alliesthesia
Reward value of stimulus increases with effectiveness of that stimulus in restoring homeostasis.
Food tastes better when you’re hungry.
Interconnection between pain and rewards process
Extensive similarities in neurobiological substrates of pain and pleasure:
- Opioids play a role both in pain modulation and hedonic reward experience
Reflected in interconnection at experiential and behavioural level
• Pain can inhibit perception of reward → rewards might not feel as good
• Reward may decrease pain perception → important part of the placebo elfect!
• Relief from pain (i.e., omission or reduction of an aversive event/punishment) is more than simply an attenuation of pain - it is pleasurable, rewarding. Strength of signal and pleasure of relief depends on degree to which negative expectancy is violated: pessimists (who generally hold more negative expectations) experience greater dread of adverse event & greater relief when adverse event is avoided.
Study: subjective pleasantness elicited by safety from pain related to response in nucleus accumbens.
Behaviourist perspective on love
Argues that all human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning (associations made between two events). Thoughts and feelings are irrelevant.
Ex: Infants cling to their mothers because they have come to associate the mother with food and other material rewards.
• But how to explain the lifelong, unrelenting persistence of love? (Doesn’t capture the depth of human relationships.)
Harry Harlow’s contributions to the understanding of attachment
- Love and affection can, and should be, studied scientifically. Point of departure for study of love: the affectionate bond of a child for its mother.
- Infant macaque monkeys raised alone in lab showed severe depressed developmental issues → withdrawn unresponsive.
- Noted strong attachment the laboratory-raised infants developed to the soft cloth pads used to cover the floor of their cages (which offer no tangible reward, thus behaviouralist perspective does not apply).
- Cloth mother and wire mother placed in different cubicles attached to infant’s cage. For half the monkeys: cloth mother “lactates”, the wire mother does not. Other half: wire mother “lactates”, the cloth mother does not.
- Monkeys proffered the cloth mother in both cases! Even buffered developmental issues the monkeys had: went to cloth mother in situations of stress.
Harlow’s work helped understand significance of physical affection for child development
John Bowlby’s attachment theory
Took the evolutionary perspective: infants cannot survive without caregiver to protect them from harm. Thus, some mechanism must be in place to keep infants close to caregivers.
- Conceptualized attachment behavioural system as akin to
a control system. Basic example—thermostat for regulating room temperature, but instead of regulating temperature, regulates safety.
Posits the existence of a universal, evolved biobehavioural system (attachment system) that motivates maintenance of proximity to caregivers (“attachment figures”) in infancy/childhood, thus promoting survival.
Brain opioid theory of social attachment
Non-human animal research:
- Opioid agonist administration (e.g., morphine) leads to reduction in separation distress (behaviourally similar to the effects of reunion with mom).
- Opioid antagonist administration (e.g., naltrexone) reduces quieting effects of social reunion (can’t be reassured, will keep clinging to mom).
Human research:
- Much less evidence in humans (methodological & ethical challenges)
- Some evidence that naltrexone decreases feelings of social connections and reward-related brain activity when reading messages written by loved ones or viewing their pictures.
Glucostatic hypothesis
According to the glucostatic hypothesis, low glucose levels serve as internal hunger cue.
• Glucose = type of sugar that serves as primary source of energy for the body’s cells.
• Glucose levels highest following a meal, decline thereafter
• Key factor is glucose availability to body’s cells
• Individuals with diabetes, who have high blood sugar, report high levels of hunger - cannot move glucose out of blood into cells due to insufficient insulin activity
Lipostatic hypothesis
Body regulates food intake and energy expenditure over the long-term based on amount of stored fat.
• Fat cells secrete the hormone leptin
• High levels signal that fat reserves are fine; no need to eat more
• Low levels of leptin indicate that fat reserves are low, trigger eating behaviour to replenish energy stores
• Helps explain why weight loss is difficult → dieter feels hungry as the body senses lack of energy
• Dropping leptin levels promote hunger
• Body weight set point is defended by lowering metabolic rate (rate at which energy is used). But set point may be altered gradually → by keeping activity constant + gradual.
Dual-center theory
Hypothalamus: receives signals related to levels of glucose, leptin, and other hunger & satiety hormones.
Lateral hypothalamus: “go” signal
• Electrical stimulation: feeding (even in well-fed animals)
• Lesions: loss of interest in food → died of starvation unless force-fed
Ventromedial hypothalamus: “stop” signal
• Electrical stimulation: loss of interest in food
• Lesions: extreme overeating, increased fat storage, obesity
Psychological factors and their role in eating behaviours
- Social, cultural, and other contextual factors influence eating behaviour (E.g. unit bias).
- Standards around physical attractiveness may promote eating disorders (like anorexia and bulimia).
Unit bias
Tendency to consider single unit/serving/portion of food as appropriate amount to eat, regardless of the size or caloric content of the unit.
• Influenced by cultural norms → MUCH larger in America Vs Europe
Anorexia nervosa
Characterized by extreme fear of gaining weight & caloric restriction → one of the most fatal psychological disorders.
Bulimia
Characterized by episodes of overeating followed by compensatory behaviours (e.g., vomiting, laxative use, fasting, excessive exercise).
Estrus
Mammal’s period of heightened sexual receptivity & fertility.
- Non-human animals will reject advances outside of estrus.
- During estrus, sexual receptivity and behavioural displays to attract mates → signal fertility
- Mediated by the sex hormone estrogen
Humans’ “estrus” (aka the menstrual cycle)
Humans (and primates) have a menstrual cycle rather than estrus.
• Series of changes in hormone production that prepare the body for pregnancy
• Sexual activity may be present throughout the cycle, but some evidence that sexual interest peaks during ovulatory phase (high estradiol, low progesterone)
• This peak may be an evolutionary adaptation to increase likelihood of conception
Why might humans be prone to sexual activity all through their cycle?
Sexual desire & activity can motivate & promote attachment bonding process.
• Evolutionary view: Big brains + bipedalism (narrower hips, smaller pelvis) = serious adaptive probiem. Solution: softheaded, helpless babies
• New problem: how to keep softheaded, helpless babies alive?
Solution: biparental caregiving & bonding between sexual partners (sex drive throughout whole cycle to encourage males to stay)
Dissociation between sex & attachment
Although sex may promote attachment bonding, sexual system is separate from the attachment system.
• Can ‘mate without bonding’ and ‘bond without mating’
• Sexual orientation toward same-sex or other-sex partners does not need to correspond with romantic attachment to same-sex or other-sex partners
• Asexual individuals can still develop attachment toward romantic partner
Concealed ovulation
Possible evolutionary reasons: securing continuous male investment, avoiding unwanted sexual advances, avoiding aggression & competition with other females.
Some have argued that there may be subtle cues signalling ovulation:
- Female scents, faces, & voices rated more attractive approaching ovulation
- Attractiveness-enhancing behaviour (e.g., dressing sexier)
- Women report male partners more jealous during periods of high fertility
- Men exhibit more sexual interest & increased testosterone in response to high-fertility
scents
Caveats: often small sample sizes, effect sizes tend to be small, some failures to replicate (esp. for hormonal change studies).
Testosterone
Correlated with sexual interest in males. E.g.) men with higher testosterone levels tend to have stronger sex drive & report more frequent thoughts about sex.
• Mixed findings for women (textbook says it increases libido).
• In men, testosterone levels fluctuate throughout the day (instead of throughout a 28-day cycle), may respond to events and life changes like competition and parenthood (short-term fluctuations and major life changes).
Achievement motivation
Desire to excel, succeed, or outperform others. → Individual difference trait
• People may vary in strength of their achievement motivation, but contextual factors matter as well
• Achievement-related behavior can arise from either a fear of failure or a desire for success
• These two aspects are orthogonal (independent of each other)
Approach motivation
Propensity to move towards some desired stimulus (reward).
E.g, doing nice things for your romantic partner for approach rather than avoidance (ex avoidance of a fight) reasons linked to greater self- and partner-satisfaction, greater relationship stability.
Avoidance motivation
Propensity to move away from an undesired stimulus (punishment, something that causes pain).
Performance orientation
A motivational stance that focuses on performing well and looking smart.
• Primarily an avoidance motivation
• When individuals get negative feedback, more likely to withdraw effort
Mastery orientation
A motivational stance that focuses on learning and improving.
• Associated with high levels of interest and a deep engagement with the material
• Primarily an approach motivation.
• When encountering adversity, they are likely to increase their effort and seek ways of benefiting from the experience
Fixed mindset
Belief that intelligence & abilities are static & unchangeable.
• Individuals with this mindset view feedback as judgment of inherent abilities & are more easily discouraged → very painful, feel criticized
• May avoid challenges to protect self-image
Mindsets can change!
Growth mindset
Belief that intelligence & abilities can be developed through effort and learning.
• See feedback as valuable information for improvement
• Embrace challenges → less threatened by negative feedback
Mindsets can change!
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Motivations arranged in hierarchical order. I.e. lower needs must be satisfied before pursuing higher level needs. Order (from bottom to top):
- Physiological
- Safety
- Belonging
- Esteem
- Self-actualisation
- Self-transcendence
