Unit 9 Flashcards
Function of Penis
Urination & copulation
Male Urethra Functions
Transport urine & semen
Scrotum Function
Maintain temperature of testes 2-30 C below body (core) temperature
Testis Function
Produce spermatozoa & testosterone
Seminiferous Tubules Function
Produce spermatozoa
Epididymis Function
Spermatozoa storage & maturation
Vas Deferens Function
Transport spermatozoa to urethra
Seminal Vesicles Function
Produce 60% of alkaline semen & fructose
Prostate Function
Produces: ⅓ of semen, nutrients & enzymes to activate spermatozoa
Bulbourethral Glands of Cowper Function
Secrete mucus + alkaline buffers to neutralize male urethral acidic pH & female vaginal acidic pH
Vagina Function
Receives penis & semen; birth canal; passageway for menstrual flow
Uterus Function
Passageway for sperm + blastocyst; nourish fetus; expel fetus during labor
Cervix Function
Secretes mucus to block the cervical canal (uterine entrance)
Endometrium Function
Uterine lining; pre-embryo implantation; degraded during menstruation
Myometrium Function
Smooth muscle contractions during parturition (labor & delivery)
Fallopian Tubes/Oviducts Function
Passageway for oocyte + spermatozoa; normal fertilization site (distal ⅓ oviduct)
Ovaries Function
Produce oocytes + estrogen + progesterone (hormones) for cycle control
Fimbria Function
Cover ovarian surface to draw oocyte into oviduct after ovulation
Mitosis (Nuclear Division)
- Used by many body cells
- Growth, replacement, repair
- No change in chromosome number (46)
Mitosis: diploid (2n) or haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Meiosis (Reduction Division)
- Only in gonads (gamete production)
- Synapsis & shuffling of genetic information provides variation
- Reduction in number of chromosomes from 46 (diploid/2n) to 23 (haploid/1n)
Meiosis: diploid (2n) or haploid (n)
haploid (n)
Direct Gene Activation:
- Steroid hormones (lipid/nonpolar) diffuse through cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer)
- Hormone binds to intracellular receptor
- Activated receptor binds w/ gene & turns it on or off (stimulate or inhibit function)
Second Messenger Systems:
- Protein-based hormones (polar)
- Cannot pass through cell membrane
- Hormone binds to cell membrane receptor
- Activates membrane proteins producing cAMP
- cAMP acts as a second messenger inside cell to activates kinase
- Kinase causes the cell response
How is Direct gene activated?
steroid hormones
How is Second Messenger System activated?
protein-based hormones
Source, Target, and Function of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH):
-Source: Hypothalamus
-Target: Anterior Pituitary
-Function:
Stimulate production & release of FSH + LH by the anterior pituitary
Source, Target, and Function of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (female)
-Source: Anterior Pituitary
-Target: Ovaries
-Function:
Stimulate follicle cell growth & maturation
Stimulate estrogen production by follicle cells
Source, Target, and Function of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (male)
-Source: Anterior Pituitary
-Target: Seminiferous Tubules
-Function:
Stimulate spermatozoa production (spermatogenesis) by maintaining Sertoli cell health in the seminiferous tubule wall
Source, Target, and Function of Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Source: Anterior Pituitary
- Target: Ovaries
- Function:
- Stimulate primary oocytes to complete 1st meiotic division & become the secondary oocyte
- Stimulate ovulation of the oocyte
- Transforms ruptured follicle (follicle cells) → corpus luteum (yellow body)
- Stimulate estrogen & progesterone production @corpus luteum
Source, Target, and Function of Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH)
- Source: Anterior Pituitary
- Target: Seminiferous Tubules
- Function:
- Stimulate spermatozoan production (spermatogenesis)
- Stimulate interstitial cells of Leydig to secrete testosterone
Sources of Estrogen
Follicle cells, Corpus Luteum, Placenta
Estrogen at the body cells function:
Stimulate development of female secondary sex characteristics
Estrogen at the uterus:
Stimulate 1st & 2nd half of cycle
Estrogen at the ovaries:
stimulate oogenesis
Estrogen at the mammary glands:
Stimulate growth of ducts & alveoli
Sources of Progesterone
Corpus Luteum & Placenta
Progesterone at the mammary glands
Stimulate development of alveoli (milk production)
Progesterone at the uterus
Stimulate endometrium & blood vessel growth
What blocks progesterone?
RU-486 (chemical abortion)
Source of Testosterone
Interstitial cells of Leydig
Testosterone at the body cells:
- Stimulate male secondary sex characteristics
- Develop genitalia, bone & muscle
- Male hair growth patterns
- ↑RBC production & metabolic rate
Testosterone at the seminiferous tubules
Maintain spermatogenesis
Source of oxytocin
Hypothalamus (stored & released by posterior pituitary)
Oxytocin at the uterus
Stimulate uterine smooth muscle contractions (causing parturition)
Oxytocin at the mammary glands
Stimulate lactiferous duct smooth muscle (release milk)
Source of Prolactin
Anterior Pituitary
Prolactin at the mammary glands
Stimulate lactiferous alveoli (produce milk)
Source of human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
rophoblast cells of blastocyst & chorion
hCG at the corpus luteum
- Maintains corpus luteum so that it produces estrogen & progesterone (absence of LH) through 1st 10 wks of pregnancy
- Placenta later produces enough estrogen & progesterone to maintain endometrium…hCG mimics LH
Spermatogenesis-
Production:
male gametes (spermatozoa)
Location of spermatogenesis
seminiferous tubules of the testes
Process of spermatogenesis (mitosis or meiosis)
meiosis
Spermatogenesis time length
puberty until death
Spermatogenesis numbers
4 million per day
Oogenesis production
female gametes (oocytes)
Location of oogenesis
follicles of the ovaries
Oogenesis process (mitosis or meiosis)
Meiosis
oogenesis length of time
puberty until menopause
oogenesis numbers
1 oocyte ovulated per ovarian cycle (28 days)
How many spermatozoa during spermatogenesis?
23
How many polar body during oogenesis?
23
What does Hypothalamus produce?
GnRH
Function of the Hypothalamus?
- Stimulates FSH production (anterior pituitary)
- Starts ovarian cycle
- Stimulates LH production (anterior pituitary)
- Maintains ovarian cycle
What does Anterior Pituitary produce?
FSH and LH
What is the function of FSH from the Anterior pituitary?
- ↑Follicle growth & maturation
- ↑Estrogen
- ↑Spermatozoan production (♂)
What is the function of LH from the Anterior pituitary?
- Stimulates oogenesis
- Causes ovulation
- ↑Estrogen & ↑progesterone synthesis
Def of Spermatogonium:
Primordial stem cell in seminiferous tubules of testes (spermatozoan production)
Def of Oogonium:
Primordial stem cell in ovaries (primary oocyte production)
Def of Follicle:
Ovarian structure containing an oocyte surrounded by follicle cells (estrogen production)
Def of Mitosis:
Process → nucleus of a body cell divides to produce identical daughter cells (growth & repair)
Def go Meiosis:
Process → gamete formation w/ half the normal chromosome number (sexual reproduction)
Def of Oocyte:
Female gamete which has completed meiotic divisions (haploid)
Def of Spermatozoan:
Male gamete which has completed meiotic divisions (haploid)
Def of fertilization:
Fusion of haploid (1n) male & female gametes to form a diploid (2n) zygote
Def of Polar Bodies:
Nonfunctional & nonviable haploid female cells w/ ↓cytoplasm (produced during meiosis)
Def of hormone:
Chemical messenger released to blood (regulates cell function)
Def of semen:
Mixture of spermatozoa & fluids from ♂ reproductive glands that supplies energy & neutralizes acidic pH in reproductive tracts (activates spermatozoa)
Def of hyaluronidase:
Spermatozoan acrosomal enzyme that allows union of male & female gametes
Normal volume of ejaculate
1 - 5 mL
- 60-150 million spermatozoa/mL
- 60-750 million spermatozoa/ejaculate
Spermatozoan count of <20 million/mL =
Oligospermia (low sperm count)
- Associated w/ ↓fertility & caused by heat, lead, arsenic, drugs, marijuana (THC), cocaine & anabolic steroids
- Spermatozoa are viable in the ♀ reproductive tract for 3-7 days
How many oogonia are produced during the 5th month of gestation?
7 million
-Production of new oogonia then stops…forever!
What does oogonia become?
Oogonia become 1o oocytes & begin Meiosis I (meiosis is arrested at Prophase I)
How many 1 oocytes remain at birth?
2 million
How many 1 oocytes remain at puberty?
400,00
About ____ of the 400,000 1o oocytes are ovulated (1/1000), (.1%) during the reproductive years. All others (________) deteriorate (____%)
400
399,600
99.9%
What does hypothalamus release during the ovarian cycle?
GnRH
What does GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release ?
FSH
What does FSH stimulates follicle cells to grow & produce ?
estrogen
↑Estrogen → anterior pituitary → ___
↑LH
What does ↑Estrogen cause?
↑Estrogen causes LH to be released in a burst (spike) & endometrium grows
What does ↑LH stimulate?
↑LH stimulates 1st meiotic division of primary oocyte
What does ↑LH?
- ↑LH causes ovulation
- ↑LH causes ruptured follicle to become a corpus luteum
What does corpus luteum produce?
estrogen & progesterone (endometrium grows)
What does estrogen and progesterone lower?
↓FSH & ↓LH production
What does ↓LH cause
corpus luteum to atrophy & produce ↓estrogen & ↓progesterone (hormonal crash)
What does ↓Estrogen & ↓progesterone cause?
endometrium to disrupt (menstruation)
What does ↓FSH cause?
a new cycle to begin
If pregnancy occurs, what does ↓estrogen & progesterone (corpus luteum deterioration) cause
endometrium to disrupt (menstruation) & terminate a pregnancy
If pregnancy occurs, what does blastocyst make?
human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) to maintain corpus luteum (in the absence of LH) for the 1st 10 weeks of development
What does hCG mimic?
LH
Placenta (eventually) produces enough _______ & _________ to maintain the endometrium thickness
estrogen, progesterone
Oral contraceptive:
- contains synthetic estrogen & progesterone
- Taken daily for 3 wks after a menstrual period
- Pill mimics Corpus Luteum effects (body thinks it is pregnant)
- Placebo pills are taken in the 4th week to permit menstruation (optional?)
Rhythm method
- daily measurement of oral Basal Body Temperature (BBT) upon awakening
- Ovarian steroids cause BBT changes
- ↓E on the day of LH peak causes a ↓BBT
- ↑P on the day after LH peak causes ↑BBT for the rest of the luteal phase
Menopause
- Cessation of ovarian activity & menstruation @50 yrs of age
- Ovaries are depleted of follicles
- No follicles…no estrogen
Menopause with ↓Estrogen causes:
- Hot flashes
- Osteoporosis
- ↑Atherosclerosis (arterial plaque formation)
- ↑M.I. (heart attack) risk
- ↑C.V.A. (stroke) risk
Def of zygote
Fertilized oocyte (diploid/2n)
Def of cleavage:
-Mitotic divisions of zygote
-Process used to double number of cells in a pre-embryo w/ each division
2-cell →4-cell → 8-cell stages
Def of morula:
- 16-cell cluster of pre–embryonic cells
- Produced by cleavage
Function of blastocyst
Fluid-filled ball of cells formed from the morula (implants in the endometrium)
Function of inner cell mass
Cells inside blastocyst (3 primary stem cell layers)
Function of trophoblast cells
- Form blastocyst outer wall (becomes chorion)
- Make hCG (mimics LH)
Def and function of Chorionic Villi:
- Finger-like trophoblast cell extensions anchored into endometrium
- Forms fetal portion of placenta
Def and function of chorion
- Outermost embryonic membrane
- Forms placenta
- Produces hCG
Def and function of amnion
- Innermost embryonic membrane
- Forms amniotic cavity
- Makes amniotic fluid
Def and function of amniotic fluid
- Protects embryo/fetus from trauma
- Permits free movement
Def and function of yolk sac
Provides early nutrients & RBCs
36 hrs after fertilization, zygote divides by mitosis (_______)
2 cells→4 cells→8 cells
cleavage
60 hrs after fertilization, pre-embryo develops into a 16 cell ________
Enters uterus 3 days after fertilization
morula
Morula becomes a _______
Implants on 6th day after fertilization
blastocyst
Blastocyst inner cell mass → ________
embryo
Trophoblast cell enzymes allow the blastocyst to digest into endometrium
____% of all lost pregnancies result from spontaneous abortions
Due to a ______________
75%, failure to implant
Amniocentesis
- Performed at 16 weeks of development
- Amniotic fluid has cells shed from fetus
- Genetic abnormalities are detected
- Fluid aspiration (amniocentesis)
- Examination of chromosomes from cells (karyotype)
Placental Exchange
- Embryo/fetus: given immunological privilege
- Protected from rejection
- Gas, nutrients & wastes are exchanged w/o blood mixing
Placental Hormones:
What does hCG mimic?
Lh and TSH
Placental Hormones: What does hCS mimic?
hGH and prolactin
What does hGH cause?
diabetic-like effect (gestational diabetes)
- ↑Blood glucose → polyuria
- Guarantees ↑glucose for embryo/fetus
Placenta secretes ________ & __________ from precursors supplied by fetus & mother
↑estrogen, ↑progesterone
def of labor
physical work necessary to expel the fetus during childbirth
Describe labor
- Uterine smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by oxytocin & prostaglandins
- Hypothalamus → posterior pituitary → oxytocin
- Uterus → prostaglandins
Labor may start w/ ______
_______(↑cortisol) may induce labor prematurely
↑cortisol, ↑Stress
Name the 3 primary germ layers form (week 3)
endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
Ectoderm Derivatives
- Nervous system
- Cornea & lens of the eye
- Skin, hair, nails
- Tooth enamel
Endoderm Derivatives
- Epithelium of: digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts
- Liver, pancreas, thyroid, parathyroids, thymus
Mesoderm Derivatives
- Muscle
- Connective tissue
- Bone marrow & blood
- Blood vessel & lymphatic vessel endothelium
- Kidneys, gonads
Developmental Timing of Pre-embryo
Week 0 → 3
Developmental Timing of Embryo
Week 3 → 8
Developmental Timing of Fetus
Week 8 → full term
What does hypothalamus produce
oxytocin (hormone)
Function of Posterior of Pituitary
- Stores & releases oxytocin
- ↑Uterine smooth muscle contractions during parturition
- ↑Mammary gland smooth muscle contractions to eject milk
Function of Anterior Pituitary:
- Produces prolactin (hormone)
- ↑Milk production
What does nursing cause?
neuroendocrine reflex
What is released during nursing?
Prolactin & oxytocin are released
What does frequent nursing delay?
menstruation
Breastfeeding ↓FSH
Prevents oocyte development
Breastfeeding ↓LH
Prevents ovulation
T or F: Infant immune system is not well-developed until months after delivery
TRUE
IgG (Immunoglobulin G) (mother) crosses placenta
-Passive immunity (up to ___ months post- delivery)
12
IgA (Immunoglobulin A) (lactation) Passive immunity (up to age \_\_ yrs)
4
Placental Nutrients
Vitamins, minerals, glucose, O2
Fetal-Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
- Growth retardation
- Mental retardation
- Anatomical abnormalities
- ↑Birth defects
- Speech impairment
- Hearing impairment
- Learning, memory & attention deficits
Placental - Waste Products
Urea, CO2
Placental Function: Smoking
Nicotine, ↑CO, ↑CO2, ↓O2
Smoking During Pregnancy: Risks
- ↑Ectopic pregnancy
- ↑Placenta previa
- ↑Abruptio placenta
- ↓Birth weight
- ↑Premature delivery
- ↑Cleft lip/palate
- ↑Sudden Infant Death -Syndrome (SIDS)
- ↓Fetal development
Placental Function - Drugs
Antibiotics, cocaine, nicotine
Effects of Irradiation during pregnancy
- X-rays
- Gamma-rays
- Directly or indirectly affect DNA
- Mutations
- Breaks chromosomes
- Causes information deletions
Def Placenta Abruptio
Placental separation before delivery
Causes of Placenta Abruptio
- Abdominal trauma
- Hypertension
- Diabetes mellitus
- Tobacco & alcohol use
Def Placenta Previa
Placental growth next to opening of the uterine cervical canal
Risk Factors of Placenta Previa
- Prior placenta previa pregnancies
- Multiple pregnancies (twins/triplets)
Symptoms of Placenta Previa
sudden bleeding (painless)
Def of Ectopic Pregnancy
Blastocyst implanted outside of uterus
Causes of Ectopic Pregnancy
- Partial uterine tube blockage
- Uterine tube scarring from infection (Pelvic Inflammatory Disease)
- Unsuccessful tubal ligation reversal
Symptoms of Ectopic Pregnancy
- Abdominal or pelvic pain w/ bleeding
- Unilateral pelvic cramping
Gonorrhea
-Bacterium: Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Transmission:
-Sexual contact w/ infected person
-Contact w/ the bacterium in the birth canal of an infected mother
Pathology of Gonorrhea
Pathology: Urinary & reproductive tract inflammation, painful urination w/ purulent (pus) discharge, abdominal pain, pelvic inflammatory disease in ♀, sterility
Gonorrhea Newborn congenital effects
Conjunctivitis & blindness
Gonorrhea Treatment
- Antibiotics
- Silver Nitrate in eyes of infants
Syphilis
-Bacterium: Treponema pallidum
Transmission:
-Sexual contact w/ infected person
-Contact w/ the bacterium in the birth canal of an infected mother
Risks of syphilis
Involvement of the cardiovascular & nervous systems
Lesions develop in infected tissues
Death may eventually occur
Treatment of Syphilis
Antibiotics
Congenital Syphilis
- Transplacental transmission
- Stillborn, skin lesions, deafness, impaired vision, tooth & skeletal deformities
What is the most prevalent STD in the U.S.?
Chlamydia
Bacteria of and treatment for Chlamydia
- Bacterial Pathogen: Chlamydia trachomatis
- Treatment: Antibiotics
Pathology of Chlamydia
- Pathology: urethritis w/ reproductive tract complications (80% asymptomatic)
- Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, infertility, ectopic pregnancy
Pathogen of Genital Herpes
Pathogen: Herpes Simplex Virus (Type II)
Risks of Genital Herpes
- Lesions occur on & around genitalia
- Lesions are recurrent & painful
- ↑Cervical cancer risk (50% mortality rate)
How is Genial Herpes transmitted?
- Transmission from lesion secretions
- Transplacental transmission to fetus
Treatment of Genital Herpes
Treatment: Acyclovir (anti-viral)
