Unit 5&6 Flashcards

1
Q

Conducting Zone

A

(no gas exchange) :

Send air to respiratory zone

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2
Q

Conducting Zone’s Structure

A
  • Nasal & oral cavities
  • Pharynx & larynx
  • Trachea
  • Bronchi
  • Terminal bronchioles
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3
Q

Respiratory Zone

A

(gas exchange):

Receive air from conducting zone

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4
Q

Respiratory Zone’s Structure

A
  • Respiratory bronchioles
  • Alveolar ducts
  • Alveolar sacs
  • Alveoli
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5
Q

Def. of Ventilation

A

move air in & out of lungs

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6
Q

Def. of Transportation

A

oxygen & carbon dioxide between lungs & tissues

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7
Q

Def. of External respiration

A

gas exchange between lungs & blood

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8
Q

Def. of Internal respiration

A

gas exchange between blood & all body cells

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9
Q

Def. of Nasal Cavity

A
  • Provides an airway for respiration
  • Moisten, warm or cool, filter air
  • Resonating chamber (speech)
  • Olfactory receptors
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10
Q

What does Mucous contain and what it destroys?

A

lysozyme, bacteria

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11
Q

Function of Larynx

A
  • Airway to the lungs

- Voice production

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12
Q

True vocal cords:

A
  • Inferior to false vocal cords

- Vibrate (elastic) to produce sound as air rushes up from lungs

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13
Q

False vocal cords:

A
  • Superior to true vocal cords

- No sound production

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14
Q

Sound is “shaped” into language by:

A
  • Pharynx
  • Tongue
  • Soft palate
  • Lips
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15
Q

Type I alveolar cells

A

Gas exchange

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16
Q

Type II alveolar cells

A

Secrete surfactant

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17
Q

Function of Alveolar pores

A
  • Connect alveoli
  • Equalize air pressure throughout lung
  • Macrophages (dust cells) keep alveoli sterile
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18
Q

Sequence of Pulmonary Circulation

A

RV → Pulmonary trunk → pulmonary arteries → pulmonary capillaries (surrounding alveoli) → pulmonary veins → LA

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19
Q

Function of Parietal pleura:

A

Covers pleural cavity wall

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20
Q

Function of Visceral pleura:

A

Covers external lung surface

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21
Q

Inspiration (inhalation)

A

air enters lungs

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22
Q

Expiration (exhalation)

A

air exits lungs

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23
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation

A
  • Depends on thoracic cavity volume changes
  • Volume changes → pressure changes
  • Pressure changes → gas flow
  • Gases move along a pressure gradient (↑pressure → ↓pressure)
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24
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

-Describes an inverse relationship between pressure & volume of gases:
↑V → ↓P ↓V → ↑P
-P = gas pressure (mmHg)
-V = gas volume (mm3)

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25
Q

Inspiration according to Boyle’s Law

A
  • ↑Thoracic cavity volume causes ↓pressure inside the lungs

- Air moves from atmosphere → lungs

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26
Q

Expiration according to Boyle’s Law

A
  • ↓Thoracic cavity volume causes ↑pressure inside the lungs

- Air moves from lungs → atmosphere

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27
Q

Atmospheric pressure (Patm):

A

pressure exerted by air surrounding the body

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28
Q

Intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul):

A

pressure w/in alveoli

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29
Q

Intrapleural pressure (Pip):

A
  • pressure w/in pleural cavity

- Intrapleural pressure is always <atmospheric pressure

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30
Q

Transpulmonary Pressure

A
  • Transpulmonary pressure = intrapulmonary pressure – intrapleural pressure
  • Keeps lung tissue expanded
  • Prevents lung collapse
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31
Q

Def. of Friction:

A

major source of resistance to airflow

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32
Q

Relationship between flow (F) & resistance (R):

A

↑R → ↓F

↓R → ↑F

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33
Q

What is the normal transpulmonary pressure?

A

760 mmHg

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34
Q

What does severely constricted or obstructed bronchioles do?

A

Prevent normal ventilation

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35
Q

What does epinephrine do?

A

dilates bronchioles (↓resistance)

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36
Q

What does Ach (aceteylcholine) do?

A

Increase resistance, constrict bronchioles

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37
Q

Def. of surface tension

A

attraction of water molecules for one another

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38
Q

What does water in the alveolar surface coating do?

A

to ↓alveolar size (collapse)

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39
Q

Surfactant (phospholipid):

A
  • Soap-like
  • ↓Surface tension
  • Prevents alveoli from collapsing
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40
Q

3 ways Thoracic Volume Increases During Inspiration

A
  • Expansion → superior & inferior direction (top to bottom)
  • Expansion → anterior & posterior direction (front to back)
  • Expansion → lateral direction (sideways)
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41
Q

Muscles used during Inspiration

A

Diaphragm & external intercostal muscles contract

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42
Q

Inspiration

A
  • Rib cage rises & expands
  • Lung volume increases
  • Intrapulmonary pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure
  • Air flows into lungs (↑P → ↓P)
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43
Q

3 ways Thoracic Volume Decreases During Expiration

A
  • Compression → superior & inferior direction (top to bottom)
  • Compression → anterior & posterior direction (front to back)
  • Compression → lateral direction (sideways)
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44
Q

Muscles used for NORMAL expiration

A

ALL muscles RELAX

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45
Q

Expiration

A
  • Rib cage lowers
  • Lung volume decreases
  • Intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric pressure
  • Air flows out of lungs (↑P → ↓P)
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46
Q

Muscles used during FORCED inspiration

A

diaphragm, external intercostals, sternocleidomastoids scalenes, pectoralis minors contract

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47
Q

Muscles used during FORCED expiration

A

internal intercostals, abdominal muscles contract

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48
Q

Tidal Volume (TV)

A

air moving into & out of the lungs w/ each breath (500 mL)

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49
Q

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):

A

air evacuated from the lungs below tidal volume (1200 mL)

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50
Q

Residual Volume (RV):

A

air remaining in lungs after forced expiration (1200 mL)

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51
Q

Vital Capacity (VC):

A

amount of exchangeable air during normal breathing (4800 mL)
VC = TV + IRV + ERV

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52
Q

Total Lung Capacity (TLC):

A

maximum amount of air that can be held in the lungs (6000 mL)
TLC = VC + RV

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53
Q

Respiratory Rate (RR):

A

total breaths per minute (BPM)

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54
Q

Respiratory Minute Volume (RMV):

A

normal air volume exchanged per minute (mL/ min)

RMV = RR x TV

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55
Q

Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)

A

air forcibly expelled after taking a deep breath

56
Q

Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV)

A

air expelled during time interval (1.0 sec.)

57
Q

Respirometer:

A

instrument that evaluates & measures respiratory function (spirogram)

58
Q

What does Spirometry evaluates:

A
  • Obstructive disorders

- Restrictive disorders

59
Q

Name Obstructive disorders and its abnormal or normal value

A
  • asthma, bronchitis emphysema
  • Abnormal FEV
  • Normal VC
60
Q

Name Restrictive disorders and its abnormal or normal value

A
  • pulmonary fibrosis, black lung, white lung, all others
  • Normal FEV
  • Abnormal VC
61
Q

Eupnea

A

Normal respiratory rate & rhythm

62
Q

What is the normal respiratory rate?

A

12-18 breaths per minute

63
Q

Apnea

A
  • Cessation of breathing

- Sleep apnea: cease to breathe for short periods during sleep

64
Q

Dyspnea

A
  • Difficult or labored breathing

- Often occurs in people who smoke

65
Q

Hyperventilation

A

Above normal rate & depth of breathing

66
Q

Hypoventilation

A

Below normal rate & depth of breathing

67
Q

Shortness of Breath

A

Reduced ability to inhale completely

68
Q

Anoxia

A

Severe oxygen deficiency

69
Q

Pneumothorax

A

-Presence of atmospheric air between parietal pleural & visceral pleural membranes (pleural space)
-Causes:
Chest wall perforation
-Pneumothorax may lead to atelectasis

70
Q

Atelectasis

A
  • Collapsed lung
  • Causes:
  • Chest wounds (gunshot, stabbing, broken rib)
  • Tearing of pleural membranes (auto accident, severe fall)
71
Q

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

A

Chronic bronchitis & emphysema

72
Q

Patient history of COPD

A

Smoking, dyspnea, coughing & frequent infections

73
Q

What does COPD victims develop:

A
  • Respiratory failure
  • Hypoxia
  • Carbon dioxide retention
  • Respiratory acidosis
74
Q

Asthma

A
  • Characterized by: dyspnea, wheezing, chest tightness
  • Airway inflammation
  • Immune response to dust mites, cockroaches, dander, pollen, mold spores, rubber particles
  • Stimulates IgE (recruits inflammation)
  • Airways thickened w/ mucus (obstruction)
  • Sense of panic
75
Q

Tuberculosis

A

I-nfectious disease

  • Cause: airborne bacterium -Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • Resistant strains are increasing
  • Symptoms: fever, night sweats, weight loss, coughing, severe headache, blood in sputum, destruction of lungs & other body organs (“consumption”)
  • Treatment: 12-month course of antibiotics
76
Q

Bronchiogenic Carcinoma

A
  • ⅓ of cancer deaths (U.S.)

- 90% of lung cancer patients were smokers

77
Q

Emphysema

A
  • Destruction of alveolar walls
  • Chronic inflammation
  • Loss of lung elasticity
  • Collapse of bronchioles during expiration
  • Typically caused by: smoking
78
Q

Bronchitis

A
  • ↑Mucus production
  • Inflammation
  • Frequent infections
  • Causes: inhaled irritants (smoke, chemical fumes, dust, microbes)
79
Q

Pneumonia

A
  • Inflammation of lung passages & spaces
  • Fluid accumulation w/in alveoli
  • ↓Gas exchange (hypoxia)
  • Potential for severe illness, death
  • Mainly caused by viruses & bacteria
80
Q

Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

A
  • Overproduction of mucus
  • Blocks: respiratory passageways, pancreatic duct, common bile duct
  • Recessive genetic disease
  • Caused by a faulty gene that codes for thickened mucus
81
Q

Nitrogen (N2)

A

78.60% (.7860)

82
Q

Oxygen (O2)

A

20.90% (.2090)

83
Q

Carbon Dioxide(CO2)

A

.04% (.0004)

84
Q

Water (H2O)

A

.46% (.0046)

85
Q

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

A
  • Partial pressure = pressure exerted by a single gas in a system (atmosphere, blood, tissues, lungs)
  • Sum of the individual partial pressures = total pressure in a system
  • Total pressure = barometric pressure (760 mmHg at sea level)
86
Q

Calculation of Partial Pressure

A
  • Partial pressure is directly proportional to % of a gas in a mixture
  • Partial Pressure (P) = % of gas x total pressure
87
Q

Percentage of nitrogen in the atmosphere is 78.60%
Total barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 760 mmHg
What is PN2 partial pressure?

A

.786 x 760 mmHG = 597.36 mmHg

88
Q

Percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere is 20.90%
Total barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 760 mmHg
What is PO2 partial pressure?

A

0.209 x 760 mmHg= 158.84 mmHg

89
Q

Percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.04%
Total barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 760 mmHg
What is PCO2 partial pressure?

A

0.0004 x 760 mmHg= 0.304 mmHg

90
Q

Percentage of water in the atmosphere is 0.46%
Total barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 760 mmHg
What is PH2O partial pressure?

A

0.0046 x 760 mmHg= 3.496 mmHg

91
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation

A
  • Air exchange between atmosphere & lungs (breathing)

- Depends on chest & diaphragm movements, clear airways

92
Q

Def of Inhalation (inspiration)

A
  • ↓pressure inside lungs (air moves in)
93
Q

Def of Exhalation (expiration)

A
  • ↑pressure inside lungs (air moves out)
94
Q

External Respiration

A

-Gas exchange between lung alveoli & pulmonary circulation blood
-Depends upon:
*Gas partial pressure differences
*Lung membrane health
* Blood flow into & out of lungs
ALVEOLUS ↔ BLOOD

95
Q

Internal Respiration

A

-Gas exchange between blood & body cells
-Depends upon:
* Gas partial pressure differences
BLOOD ↔ CELLS

96
Q

Respiration Summary Equation

A

ALVEOLUS ↔ BLOOD ↔ CELLS

97
Q

Law of Diffusion:

A
  • gases move from a region of high partial pressure (↑) to a region of low partial pressure (↓)
  • If lungs have a higher gas pressure than blood, gas moves into blood along a partial pressure gradient (↑ to ↓)
98
Q

O2 Partial Pressure Gradients of Venous blood oxygen (PO2)

A

40 mmHg

99
Q

O2 Partial Pressure Gradients of Alveolar blood oxygen (PO2)

A

104 mmHg

100
Q

O2 Partial Pressure Gradients

A
  • Steep gradient
  • Oxygen partial pressures rapidly reach equilibrium
  • Blood moves quickly through a pulmonary capillary but will still normally add O2
101
Q

CO2 Partial Pressure Gradients of Venous blood carbon dioxide (PCO2)

A

46 mmHg

102
Q

CO2 Partial Pressure Gradients of Alveolar blood carbon dioxide (PCO2)

A

40 mmHg

103
Q

CO2 Partial Pressure Gradients

A
  • Non-steep gradient
  • Carbon dioxide partial pressures rapidly reach equilibrium
  • Blood moves quickly through a pulmonary capillary but will still normally remove CO2
104
Q

Gas Solubilities

A
  • Carbon dioxide has a non-steep partial pressure gradient compared to oxygen
  • Henry’s Law
  • Carbon dioxide is 20x more soluble in plasma than oxygen
  • Result: Carbon dioxide diffuses in equal amounts w/ oxygen
105
Q

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Transport Dissolved in Plasma %

A

10%

106
Q

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Transport Chemically Bound to Hemoglobin in the RBC

A

20%

107
Q

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Transport As a Bicarbonate Ion (HCO3–) in Plasma

A

70%

108
Q

Oxygen ( O2) Transport Dissolved in Plasma

A

1%

109
Q

Oxygen ( O2) Transport Chemically Bound to

Hemoglobin in the RBC

A

99%

110
Q

Oxyhemoglobin

A
  • Forms when an oxygen molecule reversibly attaches to the heme group of hemoglobin
  • Heme contains iron (Fe)
  • Iron provides attractive force for O2
  • Hb + O2 → HbO2
111
Q

Lung (alveolar) or Body Cells?

Hb + O2 –> HbO2

A

Lungs (alveolar)

112
Q

HbO2–>Hb + O2

A

Body cells

113
Q

Hb + CO2 –> HbCO2

A

Body cells

114
Q

HbCO2 –> Hb + CO2

A

Lungs (alveolar)

115
Q

Rank the attraction of Hemoglobin attraction. (CO, CO2, O2)

A

1) Carbon monoxide (CO)
2) Oxygen (O2)
3) Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

116
Q

Carbaminohemoglobin

A

-Forms when a carbon dioxide molecule reversibly attaches to the heme group of hemoglobin
-Heme contains iron (Fe)
-Iron provides attractive force for CO2
Hb + CO2 → HbCO2

117
Q

Carboxyhemoglobin

A

-Forms when a carbon monoxide molecule irreversibly attaches to the heme group of hemoglobin
-Heme contains iron (Fe)
-Iron provides attractive force for CO
Hb + CO → HbCO

118
Q

Carbonic Acid

A

-Forms in RBC when carbonic anhydrase catalyzes water to combine w/ carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

119
Q

Bicarbonate Ion

A

-Forms in RBC when carbonic acid breaks down to release hydrogen ion & bicarbonate ion
H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3–

120
Q

Chloride Shift in Tissue Capillaries

A
  • As RBCs move through tissue capillaries, they take in carbon dioxide & release the bicarbonate ion to the plasma
  • As the bicarbonate ion is released, chloride ion (Cl–) shifts into the RBC in order to replace the negative bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
  • Preserves charge balance in RBC
121
Q

Chloride Shift in Pulmonary Capillaries

A
  • As RBCs move through pulmonary capillaries, they take in the bicarbonate ion from the plasma & release carbon dioxide to the plasma
  • As the bicarbonate ion (HCO3–) shifts into the RBC from the plasma, chloride ion (Cl–) shifts out of the RBC to the plasma
  • Preserves charge balance in RBC
122
Q

Bohr Effect on CO2 and O2 in blood

A
  • ↑Carbon dioxide in blood
  • Oxygen Dissociation Curve shifts to right
  • Right-shift decreases ability of hemoglobin to hold oxygen
  • Results in additional oxygen unloaded to cells
123
Q

Bohr Effect on pH

A
  • When pH is decreased, oxygen saturation decreased from 75% to about 65%
  • This makes an extra 10% oxygen available during any increase in physical activity
124
Q

Factors that Induce Hemoglobin to Unload Oxygen

A

These factors cause a right shift in the oxygen dissociation curve (↑oxygen unloaded)

 1. ↑Temperature (Root Effect)
 2. ↑H+ from acids (Bohr Effect) 
 3. ↑H+ from CO2 (Bohr Effect) 
 4. ↑2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG)
125
Q

About the Pons (Respiratory Center Locations)

1) What 2 center does Pons contain?
2) primary or secondary respiratory center?

A
  • Pons contains Pneumotaxic center
  • Pons contains Apneustic center
  • Both centers are SECONDARY respiratory centers
  • They do not set the primary respiratory rhythm
  • They both modify the basic respiratory rate
126
Q
Medulla oblongata (Respiratory Center Locations) 
1) Is it primary or secondary respiratory center?
A
  • Medulla oblongata contains the medullary respiratory center
  • This center is the PRIMARY respiratory center
  • It does set the basic respiratory rate
  • It is modified by both secondary respiratory centers in the pons
127
Q

Respiratory Center Functions of Pneumotaxic

A

inhibits (–) inspiration

128
Q

Respiratory Center Functions of Apneustic

A

stimulates (+) inspiration

129
Q

Respiratory Center Functions of Medullary

A

stimulates basic breathing

130
Q

Higher Brain Centers

A

-Cerebral motor cortex (brain) can bypass brain stem (respiratory center) controls
Examples:
*Voluntary breath-holding
*Taking a voluntary deep breath (inhalation)
*Removing a voluntary deep breath (exhalation)

131
Q

Hering-Breuer Reflex

A
  • Inflation reflex
  • Lung stretch-receptors are stimulated by lung inflation
  • During inflation, inhibitory signals are sent to the medullary inspiration center to end inhalation & allow expiration
  • Prevents over-inflation of lungs
  • Prevents damage to the alveoli
132
Q

Irritant Reflex

A
  • Pulmonary irritant reflex
  • Irritants promote constriction of air passages
  • ↓Air flow to prevent damage to the lungs caused by any irritant
  • Inhalation is inhibited to prevent damage from inhaled irritants
133
Q

Exercise

A
  • Proprioceptors (stretch receptors) in skeletal muscles activate during exercise
  • Proprioceptor activation causes:
  • ↑Rate of breathing
  • ↑Depth of breathing
134
Q

Central Chemoreceptors

A

-CO2 levels are monitored by central chemoreceptors (brain stem)
>H+ cannot cross the blood-brain barrier
>Carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
>Carbonic acid forms in the CSF
Result:
*↑Rate of breathing
*↑Depth of breathing

135
Q

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

A

-H+ levels in the blood are monitored by the aortic bodies & carotid bodies
-If carbon dioxide is not removed (hypoventilation), peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated (↑acidity/↓pH)
Result:
*↑Rate of breathing
*↑Depth of breathing

136
Q

Other Receptors- Hypothalamus

A
  • Hypothalamus modifies rate & depth of respiration:
  • Anger → ↓respiratory rate
  • ↑Body temperature → ↑respiratory rate
  • ↓Body temperature → ↓respiratory rate
137
Q

Developmental Aspects of Respiratory Centers

A

-Respiratory centers are activated at birth
>Alveoli inflate
>Lung function begins
-Respiratory rate is highest in newborns & slows down into adulthood
-Lungs continue to mature
>More alveoli are formed until young adulthood
-↓Respiratory efficiency w/ ↑age