Unit 7-Motivation and Emotion

Question 1

Emotions

Answer 1

Emotions are universal reactions which physiological displays are found in all cultures. Emotions allow us to display feelings that are evoked when important things happen to us, for example to feel happy, sad, proud, and fearful; but it consists of more than feelings. Emotions typically arise as reactions to important situational events, once activated; they generate feeling, arouse the body into action, generate motivational state and express themselves publicly.

Question 2

Four components of emotions

Answer 2

Emotions are also considered to be multidimensional, which means they exist as subjective, biological, purposive and social phenomena. The four components of emotions as mentioned above are interrelated and as they co-occur they greatly influence each other

Question 3

First dimension of emotion

Answer 3

is the feeling component. This component gives emotion its subjective experience that has both meaning and personal significance. In both intensity and quality, emotion is felt and experienced at the subjective and phenomenological level. The feeling aspect is rooted in cognitive or mental processes. For example if we experience a life event as death, it produces the emotion sadness. When we are sad we might feel negative, feel distressed or aversive and this is what will relate to the feeling component of the emotion sadness.

Question 4

The bodily arousal component

Answer 4

includes our biological and physiological activation, including the activity of the autonomic and hormonal systems as they prepare and regulate the body’s adaptive coping behaviour during emotion. Bodily arousal and physiological activation are so intertwined with emotion that any attempt to imagine an angry or disgusted person who is not aroused is nearly impossible. When emotional, our body is prepared for action and that is true in terms of our physiology (heart rate, epinephrine in the blood stream) and musculature (alert posture and clenched fist).

Question 5

The purposive component

Answer 5

gives emotion its goal-directed motivational state to take the action necessary to cope with the emotion-causing circumstances one faces. The purposive aspect explains why people benefit from their emotions. A person without emotions would be at a substantial social and evolutionary disadvantage than the rest of us.

Question 6

The social-expressive component

Answer 6

is emotion’s communicative aspect. Through postures, gestures, vocalizations and facial expressions, our private experiences become public expressions. During the expression of emotion, we nonverbally communicate to others how we feel and how we interpret the present situation. For example a person answers the telephone; we can tell what the news is from the other end by just watching their facial expression and how they react nonverbally to the news they have received. We can say then that emotions engage our whole person – our feelings, bodily arousal, sense of purpose and nonverbal communications. They are also short lived, feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive phenomena that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events.

Question 7

Weird diagram thingy

Answer 7

Social-Expressive
* Social Communication
* Facial Expression
* Vocal Expression

Bodily Arousal
* Physiological Activation
* Bodily Preparation for Action
* Motor Responses

Sense of Purpose
* Goal Directed Motivational State
* Functional Aspect

Feelings
* Subjective Experience
* Phenomenological Awareness
* Cognition

Question 8

The James Lange Theory

Answer 8

claims that our emotional experience is a result of our perceived bodily changes. According to the theory, the perception of an environmental stimulus (such as a growling dog) causes bodily changes (such as rapid heartbeat and fast breathing). The brain perceives those changes in behaviour and identifies them as the emotion.

Question 9

Cannon Bard Theory

Answer 9

is called the Cannon Bard theory or emergency theory. This theory states that bodily changes do not cause emotional reactions, rather the two occur simultaneously. Cannon-Bard theory argues that the thalamus, a lower brain stem structure (part of the limbic system) is necessary for emotional responses. The thalamus sends messages to the cortex for interpretation of the emotion and simultaneously to the sympathetic nervous system for appropriate physical responses. According to the Cannon-Bard theory, then, the identification (experience) of an emotion occurs at the same time as the activation of bodily responses and not because of them (as the James-Lange theory proposed). The progression is

Question 10

Third theory of emotion - Schachter- Singer two factor

Answer 10

is the Schachter-Singer two factor theory. This theory proposed that experiencing an emotion requires both emotional arousal and cognitive activity (perception, reasoning, memory) to understand the reason for the arousal (that is, to appraise the stimuli) so that the emotion can then be appropriately identified. (The process of labelling the stimuli producing an emotion is called attribution). The two factor theory concluded that although individuals usually are aware of the reason for their aroused emotional state, if the reason is not apparent, they search their environment for clues to help them interpret the emotion.

Question 11

Attribution

Answer 11

The process of labelling the stimuli producing an emotion

Question 12

Importance of emotions

Answer 12

All humans have basic emotional needs and in order to take good care of ourselves, it is important that we know what our needs are. Our emotions help us to know what our needs are through what we feel. Expressing emotions is psychologically healthy, lack of expression leads to anxiety which can have negative psychological effects. Emotions are the key to set boundaries. In order to protect ourselves we have to set boundaries with other people. If you feel uncomfortable with a person, your emotion is important because it will alert you about your feelings; it is a form of internal communication that helps you to understand yourself. You can then take the necessary steps to protect yourself and set the necessary boundaries. We have to be aware that our emotions are stored in the body. When we block our emotions, we don’t feel or hold unto a bad feeling but we are damaging our health. Research has shown that strong emotions even cause changes in the biochemistry of the body. These biochemical changes represent the physical or material aspect of the emotion.

Question 13

Motivation

Answer 13

is a condition that energizes behaviour and gives it direction. It is a general term for a group of phenomena that affect the nature, strength or persistence of an individual’s behaviour. Motives are internal experiences - needs, cognitions and emotions that energize the individual’s approach and avoidance tendencies.

Question 14

Internal motives comprise

Answer 14

needs, cognitions and emotions.

Question 15

Needs

Answer 15

these are conditions within the individual that are essential and necessary for the maintenance of life and for the nurturance of growth and well-being. Hunger and thirst are two (2) biological needs that arise from the body’s requirement for food and water. Needs serve the organism by generating wants, desires, and strivings that motivate whatever behaviours are necessary for life. Specific types of needs include biological needs, psychological needs and social needs.

Question 16

Cognitions

Answer 16

refer to mental events such as beliefs, expectations and the self-concept. Cognitive sources of motivation revolve around the person’s ways of thinking. Specific cognitive sources of motivation are plans and goals, expectancies and the self.

Question 17

Emotions (short version)

Answer 17

these are short-lived, subjective-physiological-functional-expressive phenomena that orchestrate how we react adaptively to the important events in our lives.

Question 18

External events

Answer 18

are environmental incentives that attract or repel the individual to engage or not to engage in a particular course of action. These environmental incentives have the capacity to energize and direct behaviour. The incentive of money, or a horrible odour gains the capacity to direct behaviour to the extent that it signals that a particular behaviour will likely produce rewarding or punishing consequences.

Question 19

Theories of Motivation
Instinct Motivation

Answer 19

When psychologists first sought to explain motivation, they turned to instincts, inborn patterns of behaviour that are biologically determined rather than learnt. According to instinct approaches, to motivation, people and animals are born with pre-programmed sets of behaviours essential to their survival. These instincts provide the energy that channels behaviour in appropriate directions. Hence, sex might be explained as a response to an instinct for reproduction, and an exploratory behaviour may be viewed as motivated by an instinct to examine one’s territory.

Question 20

Drive Reduction Approaches

Answer 20

When psychologists first sought to explain motivation, they turned to instincts, inborn patterns of behaviour that are biologically determined rather than learnt. According to instinct approaches, to motivation, people and animals are born with pre-programmed sets of behaviours essential to their survival. These instincts provide the energy that channels behaviour in appropriate directions. Hence, sex might be explained as a response to an instinct for reproduction, and an exploratory behaviour may be viewed as motivated by an instinct to examine one’s territory.

Question 21

Drive reduction theory/ Homeostasis

Answer 21

Homeostasis is the process by which an organism strives to maintain some optimal level of internal biological functioning by compensating for deviations from its usual, balanced internal state. For example, is our bodies need liquids in order to achieve some optimal level of functioning, we experience thirst and seek out water.

Question 22

Arousal Approach

Answer 22

Arousal Approach: Beyond Drive-Reduction
seeks to explain behaviour in which the goal is to maintain or increase arousal or excitement. According to this approach, each of us tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity. If stimulation and activity levels are too low, we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation. People vary in the levels of stimulation they need, with some people needing especially high levels of arousal. These people may try to avoid boredom by seeking out challenging situations.

Question 23

Incentive Approach

Answer 23

Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull
to motivation attempt to explain why behaviour is not always motivated by an internal need, such as a desire to reduce drives or to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Instead of focusing on internal factors, incentive approaches explain motivation in terms of the nature of the external stimuli, the incentives that direct and energize behaviour. So in this view, behaviour is largely influenced by external stimuli as the motivation for the behaviour.
Psychologists now believe that the external incentives work in tandem with the internal drive reduction to respectively ‘push’ and ‘pull’ behaviour.

Question 24

Maslow Needs

Answer 24

In Maslow’s view, our most basic needs are Physiological Needs, including the need for food, water, oxygen, rest and so on. If our physiological needs are met, we find ourselves motivated by needs found in the next level- Safety Needs, including the need for security and comfort. Once these are met, we can move on to our attachment needs, the need to love and to be loved, to have friends and to be a friend. This is the Need for Love and Belongingness. Then we need to satisfy our need to believe in ourselves and believe in our self-worth; these are our Esteem Needs. We are motivated to achieve needs higher in the hierarchy only first after satisfying lower needs, we are able to lead a life free to pursue Self- Actualisation.

Question 25

Expectancy Value Theory

Answer 25

• The Expectancy-Value Theory-two kinds of cognitions underlie our behaviour. The first is our expectation that a behaviour will cause us to reach a particular goal, and the second is our understanding of the value of that goal to us. For example, the degree to which we are motivated to study for a test will be jointly based on how well our studying will pay off (in terms of a good grade and the value we place on getting a good grade. In both, expectation and value are high, we will be motivated to study diligently; but if either one is low, our motivation to study will be relatively lower.

Question 26

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 26

Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our own enjoyment, rather than for any tangible reward that it can bring us. Intrinsic motivation is the innate propensity to engage one’s interests and to exercise one’s capacities; and in doing so,
to seek out and make optimal challenge. It emerges spontaneously from psychological needs, personal curiosities and innate strivings for growth.

Question 27

Extrinsic motivation

Answer 27

causes us to do something for a tangible reward. According to research on the two types of motivation, we are more apt to persevere, work harder, and produce work of a higher quality when motivation for a task is intrinsic rather than extrinsic. Extrinsic motivation arises from environmental incentives and consequences. It arises from some consequence that is separate from the activity itself. This type of motivation emanates from environmentally created reasons to initiate or persist in an action.

Question 28

There are important factors to consider when studying Motivation:

Answer 28

1. Types of motivation exist, for example intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
2. Motivation benefits adaptation. People with high quality motivation adapt well and thrive, but those who have motivational deficits flounder.
3. Motives direct attention. They influence behaviour by capturing attention, interrupting what we are doing and imposing a priority onto our behaviours.
4. Motives vary over time and influence the direction of behaviour. Not only do motives’ strengths constantly rise and fall, but people always harbour a multitude of different motives at any one point in time.
5. Motives include both approach and avoidance tendencies. Several motivational systems are aversive in nature- pain, hunger, fear, distress, anxiety and pressure. Motivational states also ready us to approach environmental opportunities and to improve our live-interest, hope joy, achievement and self-actualization.
6. Motivation studies reveal what people want. The study of motivation informs us of what parts of desire and want stem from human nature, and also what parts stem from personal, social and cultural learning.

Question 29

Random emotions facts

Answer 29

• When feeling an emotion, we can experience identifiable physical changes in our bodies which we can differentiate from other emotions.
  It is possible to experience an emotion without the presence of cognitive elements (without having cognitive awareness or understanding of just what it is about the situation that is causing a reaction.
• We can experience emotions that involve little or no conscious thought.
• Some psychologists argue that there are entirely separate systems governing cognitive responses and emotional responses.

Question 30

More facts on emotions

Answer 30

Our emotions play an important role in influencing our behaviour.
* Not everyone experiences emotions in an identical way. There are sometimes gender differences in emotional experiences. Members of different cultures experience emotions with differing degrees of intensity.
* Most researchers suggest that a list of basic emotions would include happiness, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise, guilt, contempt and joy.

Question 31

Even more facts…

Answer 31

Emotions are accompanied by expressions such as smiles and frowns which convey our feelings to others.
The nature of the emotion evoked by a particular stimulus depends on the nature of the stimulus and our prior experiences with the stimulus.
The stimulus and the emotion that they can produce can be far removed from each other in time and they can involve cognitions- we can experience emotions by remembering things that happened to us or things we did, or by imagining things that might occur.
* Most emotional experiences have physiological reactions like heart racing or sweating.
* Many animal species communicate their emotions to others by means of postural changes and facial expressions. These behaviours tell others how we feel and what we are likely to do. Humans display similar expressions of emotions.
The expression of basic emotions seems to be universal

Question 32

Display rules

Answer 32

Display rules are rules that prescribe under what conditions/situations we should or should not display signs of particular emotions. These rules are the guidelines that govern appropriate non-verbal expression of emotion.

Question 33

Masking and Leakage

Answer 33

• Sometimes we try to hide our true feelings, attempting to appear impassive or even to display an emotion different to what we are feeling.
• Attempting to hide an emotion is called Masking. When people are not completely successful at hiding a strongly felt emotion, there are subtle signs of the real emotion. This is called Leakage.

Question 34

Modulation and Simulation

Answer 34

Attempting to exaggerate or minimize the expression of an emotion is called Modulation, while attempting to display an emotion one is not actually feeling is called Simulation.

Question 35

The Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Answer 35

f you want to feel happy, try smiling’. The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis suggests that a facial expression not only reflects an emotional experience but also provides muscular feedback to the brain that helps to produce the emotion that matches the facial expression.
If you smile, the muscles sends a message to your brain that you are experiencing happiness, even though there is nothing in the environment to evoke the emotion.

Question 36

Functions of emotions

Answer 36

Preparing us for action. Emotions are stimuli that aid in the development of effective responses to various situations. They act as a link between events in the external environment and behavioural responses that the individual makes.
Shaping our future behaviour. Emotions serve the remote learning of information that will assist us in making appropriate responses in the future.
* Helping us to regulate social interaction. Our emotions are communicated through our verbal and non-verbal behaviours. These behaviours act as signals to observers, allowing them to better understand what we are experiencing and to predict our future behaviour. It tells others how to respond to us; invites and facilitates social interaction, and creates, maintains and dissolves relationships.
* Making life interesting

Question 37

The James-Lange Theory (long version)

Answer 37

The James-Lange Theory - Do gut reactions give us emotions?
William James (1842-1910)and American psychologist and Carl Lange (1834-1900) a Danish physiologist independently suggested similar explanations for emotions which most people call the James-Lange Theory (James 1884, Lange 1887). The Theory states that emotion-producing situations elicit appropriate sets of physiological responses such as sweating, trembling and increased heart rate. Where the feeling of emotions are concerned, the emotion-evoking stimulus/situation occurs, we get a physiological response to it, then this set of physiological responses sets of the appropriate emotion.
To James and Lange, emotional experience is simply a reaction to instinctive bodily events that occur as a response to some other situation or event in the environment. They suggest that for every major emotion, there is an accompanying physiological or gut response of one’s internal organs called a Visceral Experience. It is this specific pattern of visceral response that leads us to label the emotional experience. We experience emotion as a result of the physiological change.

Question 38

Critiques

Answer 38

Visceral changes will have to occur very quickly, since we experience some emotions, like fear, almost
instantaneously. Yet emotional responses frequently occur even before there is time for certain physiological changes to be set in motion. Because some visceral changes are somewhat slow, it is hard to see how they could be the source of immediate emotional experience.
* Visceral changes by themselves may be insufficient to produce emotion. Physiological arousal can occur in other situations e.g. exercising or over-exertion. The arousal is the same as the visceral changes but to a jogger there is no typical change in emotion.
* Our internal organs produce a relatively limited range of sensations. Many emotions are associated with relatively similar sorts of visceral changes and are not associated with their own specific emotional experiences.
Support:
* Hohman’s study of people with spinal cord injury supported the James-Lange theory. People who could no longer feel the reactions from most of their body (due to spinal cord injury) reported that they no longer experienced intense emotional states.