Unit 3- Learning and conditioning

Question 1

Define Learning

Answer 1

is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is the result of experience.

Question 2

Four kinds of learning:

Answer 2

Habituation and sensitization, classical conditioning, operational conditioning and complex learning

Question 3

What is Classical conditioning

Answer 3

is a learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing with that stimulus

Question 4

Who discovered Classical conditioning

Answer 4

Ivan Pavlov, a russian physiologist

Question 5

classical conditioning experiment ( beginning)

Answer 5

a tube is attached to the dog’s salivary gland so that the flow of salivation is measured. Then the dog is placed in front of a pan into which meat powder is delivered automatically. The dog is hungry and when meat powder is delivered, salivation is registered. The salivation is an unconditioned response : an unlearned response elicited by the taste of food, the food is termed an unconditioned stimulus ( a stimulus that automatically elicits a response without prior conditioning)

Question 6

Define neutral stimulus

Answer 6

when the response elicited is not targeted

Question 7

Starting of conditioning

Answer 7

First the light is turned on then some meat powder is delivered and the light is turned off repeatedly. This is called the conditioning part of the experiment. In a classical conditioning experiment the researcher capitalizes on the existence of a certain unconditioned response, typically a reflex (e.g a knee jerk )
The dog’s reaction is anticipatory as it salivates in response to light because it has learned the light precedes the food

Question 8

Daily life conditioned response

Answer 8

When someone habitually drinks a cup of coffee , this conditioned response will be elicited by cues related to the habitual caffeine intake ( the conditioned stimulus) example, the smell of coffee

Question 9

How does classical conditioning help

Answer 9

explains how the body learns to respond to situation cues that are associated with regular caffeine intake simply because of their repeated pairing with the caffeine intake. can help to explain the response humans have to the repeated intake of specific drugs.

Question 10

Criticisms of classical conditioning

Answer 10

Rescorla was able to show that the conditioned stimulus must be a reliable predictor of the unconditioned stimulus.. Temporal contiguity was proven not enough for conditioning
- pavlov was careful not to make any claims about the organism’s cognitive understanding of relationships between stimuli such as internal events were considered not to be observable.
-Depending on the experiments not all stimuli will work and they firmly believed that nurture side that organisms learning depended entirely on its environment disregarding biological factors.

Question 11

Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

Answer 11

involves learning the relationship between the responses and their outcomes

Question 12

Who contributed to Instrumental Conditioning

Answer 12

B.F Skinner an American psychologist and Edward Thorndike

Question 13

Edward experiments

Answer 13

Thorndike concluded that animals unlike humans, do not learn by developing some insight (an understanding of the situation, leading to the solution of a problem) rather they learn through i trial- and - error. In a typical experiment, a hungry cat is placed in a cage whose door is held fast by a simple latch, and a piece of fish is placed outside the cage. Initially, the cat tries to reached the food by extending to pass through the bars. When this fails the cat moves about the cage, engaging in a variety of behaviours. At some point, it advertently hits the latch, frees itself and eats the fish. Researchers then place the cat back in its cage. Over a number of trials, the cat eliminates many of its irrelevant behaviours and eventually it opens the latch as soon as it is placed in the cage.

Question 14

Law of effect

Answer 14

A performance gradually improving over a series of trials. When a reward is followed, the action is strenghtened

Question 15

Reinforcement

Answer 15

an environmental event that follows behaviour/ the delivery of a stimulus produces either an increase or decrease in the probability of that behaviour.

Question 16

How can reinforcement be done

Answer 16

giving an appetitive stimulus (positive reinforcement) and removing an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement)

Question 17

How can punishment be done

Answer 17

Removal of an appetitive stimulus

Question 18

Define conditioned reinforcer

Answer 18

is a stimulus that has been paired with a primary reinforcer. They greatly increase the generality of instrumental psychology.

Question 19

Types of ratio schedules

Answer 19

Fixed- organism is reinforced for its first response after a certain amount of time has passed since its last reinforcement
Variable- reinforcement is provided after a certain number of responses with the number varying unpredictably. ( no pauses when the organism is operating) ( number of responses vary)
Interval schedules- reinforcement is available only after a certain time interval has elapsed and the animal makes a response

Question 20

How are negative or aversive events used in instrumental conditioning

Answer 20

In punishment training, a response is followed by an aversive stimulus or event, which results in the response being weakened or suppressed on subsequent occasions. This is used for redirecting behaviour. This is however not always successful and can be used in an attempt to increase behaviour.

Question 21

Criticisms of instrumental conditioning

Answer 21

The effects of punishment are not as successful as rewards
Experimentee can figure out things are not in their control and this is called learned helplessness.
Some laws of learning apply to all situations and some are born being better at a certain experiment than others.

Question 22

Escape and avoidance behaviour

Answer 22

Escape learning- learning to make a response to terminate an ongoing aversive event
Avoidance learning- avoiding the event altogether.

Question 23

Observational learning

Answer 23

Albert Bandura emmphasized observational learning occurs through the principles of operant conditioning. Models inform us about the consequences of our behaviours. Models often are actual persons who behaviours we observe but they can be more abstract, ( like written instructions in a book)

Question 24

What does observational learning/social learning do

Answer 24

involves the ability to imagine and anticpate thoughts and intention are essential
Cognitions motivate actions and that a sense of self-efficancy ( an individual’s belief in their own effectiveness) is essential for complex and social learning.

Question 25

What does Observational learning consist of

Answer 25

Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behaviour Learn about evolutionary roots of motivated behaviour Learn about Eating Learn about Threat and Aggression Learn about Mating

Question 26

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Answer 26

-More individuals are born in each species that survive to sexual maturity -There is variation among the individuals of all the species, indeed no two individuals are identical - Certain differences among individuals are adaptive. The individuals who possess the adaptive characteristic are more likely to survive and reproduce in the environment into which they are born -Some adaptive differences among individuals are inherited - The environment does not contain enough resources to support all individuals - A struggle for existence occurs among individuals, those who possess the most adaptive characteristics by definition - Individuals who survive and reproduce pass on their adaptive to their offspring, who are more inclined to inherit these adaptive traits than the offspring of parents who do not possess them - Over many generations, this process may result in the creation of new species

Question 27

Biological Perspective

Answer 27

Leads us to ask how various behaviours came to be- how they evolved and what purpose they were What do we share with other species? e.g a sense of play and curiosity What do we not share with other species- e.g language

Question 28

Evolution of Behaviour

Answer 28

-Many aspects of who we are and how we behave are rooted in our genetic heritage - Identical twins inherit exactly the same genetic pattern. This makes a difference. -Identical twins usually end up more similar to each other in their personalities and preferences than other siblings even when they are raised apart.

Question 29

Evolution of Behaviour : The Comparative Method

Answer 29

- We can get further insights into the evolution of behaviour to other organisms -If we find parallels between, say humans' aggression and aggression in other species, this would strengthen the belief that our aggression is fueled by genetic forces that operate in all species -other animals are less likely to be influenced by cultural factors or complex decisions- making therefore finding parallels with other species would suggest a smaller role for these human influences

Question 30

The Autonomic Nervous System

Answer 30

-All mammals and all birds are endotherms( organisms that maintain stable body heat - Endothermic animals sometimes become too warm, and so need to lose heat and sometimes too cold and so preserve the heat created by their own metabolic activity These two activities are controlled by the autonomic nervous system Central Nervous System ( CNS) the brain and spinal cord Peripheric Nervous System ( PNS) System of nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord

Question 31

Peripheric nervous system

Answer 31

send control to the glands and smooth muscles controls internal organs usually not under voluntary control the peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the - sensory-somatic nervous system -autonomic nervous system Two brances Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Question 32

Sympathetic Nervous System

Answer 32

Triggered when body temperature is too low Revives up body activity to prepare for rigirous activity increased heart rate slowing down of peristalsis ( rhythmic contractions of intestines, so not using energy during digestion Vasoconstriction Contraction of skins capillaries

Question 33

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Answer 33

Triggered when body's temperature is too high Restored body's internal activities cardio slowing speeds up peristalsis vasodilation widening of skin's capillaries

Question 34

THREAT AND AGGRESSION

Answer 34

What happens biologically when we feel threatened? Self protection The Emergency Reaction: Fight or Flight Intense arousal serves as an emergency reaction that mobilizes the animal for a crisis Internal adjustments necessary to respond to threat in environment When threat detected: Sympathetic branch of ANS activated Prepares body for immediate, intense activity. Surge of adrenaline released

Question 35

Territoriality

Answer 35

Acquisition and protection of resources usually territory source of most aggression Often expressed in humans as "personal space" preferences Vary by culture, much is learned Male versus female aggression Male use physical aggression/pushing and punching . Females use social aggression ( spreading rumors, isolating unwanted people)

Question 36

Learning to be aggressive

Answer 36

1. Explicit Learning : someone demands or teaches us 2. Implicit: we observe 3. seems to be causal? when we observe violence we become violent Is aggression inevitable? Cultural values, testerone, defending your territory

Question 37

Define latent learning

Answer 37

when an human/animal learns but their behaviour did not change in a corresponding way.

Question 38

Define cognitive map

Answer 38

a mental representation of the lay out

Question 39

Habituation

Answer 39

a behavioural response such as orienting to an unfamiliar sound decreases over successive presentations of that stimulus. Habituation permits us to remain relatively free of distraction.

Question 40

Sensitization

Answer 40

a behavioural response increases during presentations of intense stimuli

Question 41

Acquisition

Answer 41

The learning phase of classical conditioning, during which the CS( conditional stimulus) gradually increases in frequency or strength.

Question 42

Extinction

Answer 42

once a classically conditioned response has been acquired if the CS continues to be presented but is no longer followed by the USC ( unconditional stimulus) then the CR will stop.

Question 43

Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 43

Once a CR has been extinguished it may not disappear from the organism's behaviour permanently. Even after a CR has been extinguished, it could suddenly reappear when the animal is replaced into the situation.

Question 44

Generalization

Answer 44

No two stimuli are exactly alike. Once a response has been conditioned to a CS, the more likely it will elicit the CR

Question 45

Discrimination

Answer 45

an organism can be taught to distinguish between similar but different stimuli

Question 46

Discrimination Learning

Answer 46

is accomplished by using two different Cs. One Cs is always followed by the UCS and the other CS is never followed by the UCS, At first, increased amounts of the CR will occur in response to both stimuli but gradually fewer will occur for the second stimulus.

Question 47

Conditional Emotional Responses

Answer 47

Many stimuli are able to arouse emotional responses like feelings of disgust, fear, anger, sadness or sexual desire. Many of these stimuli such as a place, phrase, smell, song, someone's voice and face originally had no significance because they were paired with other stimuli that elicited strong emotional reactions through classical conditioning they took on an emotional significance. Words like gift, happy and beauty had no effect on you before you learnt what they meant. Through pairing with positive or negative events they took on their power.

Question 48

Phobias

Answer 48

These are unreasonable fears of specific objects or situations. They were exposed to the now fearsome object in conjunction with a stimulus that elicited pain or fear.

Question 49

Classical conditioning can occur with or without direct experience how?

Answer 49

a child can develop the same phobia as a parent by observing signs of fear in the parent during the situation

Question 50

How can you get over irrational fears

Answer 50

Systematic De-sensitization ( a form of therapy )

Question 51

How can people develop fear?

Answer 51

by hearing/reading stories(UCS) that vividly describe unpleasant episodes can provide imaginary stimuli (CS) that leads to real conditional emotional responses.

Question 52

Phobias

Answer 52

Nosocomephobia = The fear of hospita Numerophobia = The fear of numbers Nyctophobia = The fear of darkness. Ombrophobia = The fear of rain Omphalophobia = The fear of belly buttons. Ophidiophabia he fear of snakes. Ornithophobia he fear of birds. Panophobia The fear that terrible things will happen Paraskevidekatriaphohia = The fear of Friday the 13th. Pediophobia = The fear of dolls. Phasmophobia = The fear of ghosts. Philophobia = The fear of love. Phobophobia he fear of fear. Photophobia = The fear of light. Podophobia = The fear of feet. Pogonophobia = The fear of beards.

Question 53

Continuation of phobias

Answer 53

Acrophobia- fear of heights Agyrophobia- Fear of crossing streets Aichmophobia-fear of pointed objects Ailurophobia- fear of cats Androphobia-fear of men Arachnophobia- fear of spiders Batrachophobia- fear of frogs and toads Claustrophobia-Fear of enclosed spaces Coprophobia-Fearof excrement /feces Cynophobia- Fear of dogs Doraphobia-Fear of contact with animal fur or skin Emetophobia- Fear of vomiting Entomophobia-Fear of insects Gynephobia-Fear or hatred of women Hermatophobia- Fear of the sight of blood Herpetophobia- Fear of reptiles Hippophobia- Fear of horses Homophobia- Fear of homosexuality (the political use of this term is not always scientifically accurate) Hydrophobia-Fear of water Ichthyophobia- Fear of fish Ophidiophobia-Fear of snakes (compare herpetophobia) Ornithophobia- Fear of birds Scotophobia- Fear of the dark Taurophobia-Fear of bulls Thanatophobia-Fear of death Trichophobia-Fear of hair Triskaidekaphobia- Fear of the number 13 Vermiphobia- Fear of earthworms Xenophobia-Fear or hatred of foreigners and strange things Zoophobia- Fear of animals

Question 54

The preceding event

Answer 54

the discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for responding because in the past, when that stimulus occurred, the response was followed by certain consequences

Question 55

The discriminative stimulus

Answer 55

is a stimulus that indicates that behaviour will have certain consequences and thus sets the occasion for responding. The response- we make is called an Operant Behaviour. The following event - is the consequence of the operant behaviour. Discriminative Stimulus- operant response- punishment Pan on hot burner- touch pan- severe pain

Question 56

More on operant behaviour and discriminative stimulus

Answer 56

an operant behaviour occurs in the presence of discriminative stimuli and is followed by certain consequences. These consequences are continent upon behaviour- they are produced by that behaviour. in the presence of discriminative stimuli - a consequence will occur and only if an operant behaviour occurs. In the absence of a discriminative stimulus, the operant behaviour will have no effect. Once an operant behaviour is established it tends to persist whenever the discriminative stimulus occurs, even if other aspects of the environment change

Question 57

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 57

is an increase in frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by an appetitive stimulus. An appetitive stimulus follows in response and increases the frequency of that response. e.g you like food at a restaurant so u go back

Question 58

Appetitive stimulus

Answer 58

any stimulus an organism seeks out

Question 59

Negative reinforcement ( not punishment)

Answer 59

is an increase in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an aversive stimulus. e.g opening an umbrella when it is raining

Question 60

Aversive stimulus

Answer 60

is unpleasant stimulus an organism avoids

Question 61

Negative reinforcer

Answer 61

An aversive stimulus is terminated as soon as a response occurs and therefore increases the frequency of that response.

Question 62

Positive punishment

Answer 62

is a decrease in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by an aversive stimulus. If an aversive stimulus follows a response and decreases the frequency of that response we call it a punisher

Question 63

What does punishment do

Answer 63

organisms learn only which response not to make. It does not teach the organism desirable responses. Punishment often induces fear, hostility. It may result in retaliation against the punisher.

Question 64

Response cost ( Negative Punishment)

Answer 64

is a decrease in the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by terminated of an appetitive stimulus. It is often referred to a Time out when is it used to physically remove a person from an activity that is reinforcing to that person.

Question 65

Shaping

Answer 65

a procedure that involves reinforcing any behaviour that successfully approximates the desired response. To begin with you must be able to recognize the Target Behaviour- the behaviour displayed by a person having the appropriate the skill. As your skills develops you only are satisfied when your behaviour improves so that it closely resembles the target behaviour.

Question 66

How do people learn to discriminate in operant conditioning

Answer 66

Stimuli Control training- in this process, a behaviour is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus but not in its absence. Discrimination means that responding occurs only when a particular discriminative stimulus is present.

Question 67

Generalisation

Answer 67

in which an organism learns a response to one stimulus and then applies it other stimuli. If you have learnt that being polite produces the reinforcement of getting your way in a certain situations, you are likely to generalize your responses to other situations.

Question 68

Extinction

Answer 68

is a decrease in the frequency of a previously reinforced response because it is no longer followed by a reinforcer. A young child will stop telling his favourite joke if no one laughs at it . it is not forgetting as forgetting is when a person does not think about a particular memory for a long time.

Question 69

Primary Reinforcer

Answer 69

are biologically significant appetitive stimulus such as food when one is hungry.

Question 70

Primary Punisher

Answer 70

are biologically significant aversive stimulus those that produce pain.

Question 71

Conditioned or Secondary Punisher

Answer 71

behaviour that can also be reinforced with other stimuli : money a smile

Question 72

Explaining reinforcing more

Answer 72

A stimulus becomes a conditioned reinforcer or punisher from classical conditioning. The primary reinforcer or punisher serves as the unconditional stimulus because it produces the unconditional response good or bad feelings. After classical conditioning takes place these good or bad feelings are produced by the CS- the conditional reinforcer or punisher. Once this happens the stimulus can reinforce behaviour by itself.

Question 73

About B.F Skinner

Answer 73

Major concerns- how the environment influences human behaviour emphasized the importance of overt behaviour Rejected the nation that human behaviour is determined by internal factors ( e.g unconscious, impulses) mental processes cannot be objectively identified and are irrelevant to a scientific explanation of behaviour His study of personality involved the discovery of unique patterns of relationships between the behaviour and an organism and its reinforcing consequences.

Question 74

Terminology of classical conditioning

Answer 74

UCS- a stimulus that can elicit a response without any learning UCR- an unlearned, inborn reaction to an unconditioned stimulus CS- a stimulus that comes to elicit responses as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus CR- a response that is similar or identical to a conditioned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Question 75

Ways that classical conditioning

Answer 75

Standard pairing- a very short interval between the CS and the UCS ( conditioning will definitely occur due to the close temporal association)

Question 76

Simultaneous conditioning

Answer 76

the CS and UCS are presented together ( the bell begins to ring at the same time the food is presented)

Question 77

Backward conditioning

Answer 77

CS comes after the UCS the bell comes after the food, )therefore conditioning takes place

Question 78

Delayed conditioning

Answer 78

the UCS is presented long after the CS is presented (if the ball is rung and the food is presented one minute later, after a couples of times the dog will begin to salivate closer to the time the food will be presented)

Question 79

Counter conditioning

Answer 79

the method of reversing a classically conditioned response by pairing the CS with and an UCS for a response that is stronger than the CR and that cannot occur at the time as the CR ( e.g they reduced the fear of rats by pairing the rat with cookies or some other UCS)

Question 80

Operant Conditioning

Answer 80

Learning in which the consequences of behaviour leads to changes in the probability at its occurrence. Operant behaviour is determined by events that follow the response Behaviours are followed by consequences and the nature of the consequences inform further behaviour in the future

Question 81

Social Learning

Answer 81

introduces imitation and direct introduction as additional means of acquiring new knowledge and behaviours. It gives a much greater role to cognitive processes including the knowledge the learner already has, the influence of ones expectations about how their behaviours are evaluated and anticipation of the probably outcomes of success or failure.

Question 82

Ideologies of classical and operant conditioning

Answer 82

1. mediating processes occur between stimuli and responses 2. behaviours are learnt from the environment through the process of observational learning

Question 83

Three core concepts of social learning

Answer 83

1.The idea that people can learn through observations 2. The notion that internal states are an essential part of the process 3. This theory recognises that just because something has been learnt it does not mean that it will result in a change of behaviour

Question 84

Three basic models of observational learning

Answer 84

1. Live Model- involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour 2. Verbal Instructional Model- involves description and exploration of behaviours 3. Symbiotic Model- involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in films, television programs, or from online models

Question 85

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 85

The tendency to repeat or duplicate the actions and behaviour for which others are being rewarded. (When the model's behaviour is rewarded, the behaviour is more likely to be imitated, when the model is punished the behaviour is more likely to be avoided, When naughty behaviours go unpunished it is too is likely to be imitated..

Question 86

Four processes that one most under go for a behaviour to be imitated

Answer 86

Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation

Question 87

Attention

Answer 87

the extent to which one is exposed or notices the behaviour. For a behaviour to be noticed it has to grab one's attention.

Question 88

Retention

Answer 88

is the ability to store information. Retention can be affected by a number of factors but the ability to pull up information later and act an it is vital to observational learning,

Question 89

Reproduction

Answer 89

known as the ability to perform a behaviour the model has demonstrated .Once o=you have paid attention to the model and retain the information it is time to perform the behaviour that was observed, Further practice of the behaviour will lead to improvement and skill advancements and development.

Question 90

Motivation

Answer 90

Initiates, provides and maintains goal oriented behaviours, One must be motivated to imitate the behaviour that was modelled. Without this process, the individual will be unable to produce the behaviour learnt, Reinforcement and punishment play a main role in motivation.