Unit 3- Learning and conditioning Flashcards
Define Learning
is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is the result of experience.
Four kinds of learning:
Habituation and sensitization, classical conditioning, operational conditioning and complex learning
What is Classical conditioning
is a learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing with that stimulus
Who discovered Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov, a russian physiologist
classical conditioning experiment ( beginning)
a tube is attached to the dog’s salivary gland so that the flow of salivation is measured. Then the dog is placed in front of a pan into which meat powder is delivered automatically. The dog is hungry and when meat powder is delivered, salivation is registered. The salivation is an unconditioned response : an unlearned response elicited by the taste of food, the food is termed an unconditioned stimulus ( a stimulus that automatically elicits a response without prior conditioning)
Define neutral stimulus
when the response elicited is not targeted
Starting of conditioning
First the light is turned on then some meat powder is delivered and the light is turned off repeatedly. This is called the conditioning part of the experiment. In a classical conditioning experiment the researcher capitalizes on the existence of a certain unconditioned response, typically a reflex (e.g a knee jerk )
The dog’s reaction is anticipatory as it salivates in response to light because it has learned the light precedes the food
Daily life conditioned response
When someone habitually drinks a cup of coffee , this conditioned response will be elicited by cues related to the habitual caffeine intake ( the conditioned stimulus) example, the smell of coffee
How does classical conditioning help
explains how the body learns to respond to situation cues that are associated with regular caffeine intake simply because of their repeated pairing with the caffeine intake. can help to explain the response humans have to the repeated intake of specific drugs.
Criticisms of classical conditioning
Rescorla was able to show that the conditioned stimulus must be a reliable predictor of the unconditioned stimulus.. Temporal contiguity was proven not enough for conditioning
- pavlov was careful not to make any claims about the organism’s cognitive understanding of relationships between stimuli such as internal events were considered not to be observable.
-Depending on the experiments not all stimuli will work and they firmly believed that nurture side that organisms learning depended entirely on its environment disregarding biological factors.
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
involves learning the relationship between the responses and their outcomes
Who contributed to Instrumental Conditioning
B.F Skinner an American psychologist and Edward Thorndike
Edward experiments
Thorndike concluded that animals unlike humans, do not learn by developing some insight (an understanding of the situation, leading to the solution of a problem) rather they learn through i trial- and - error. In a typical experiment, a hungry cat is placed in a cage whose door is held fast by a simple latch, and a piece of fish is placed outside the cage. Initially, the cat tries to reached the food by extending to pass through the bars. When this fails the cat moves about the cage, engaging in a variety of behaviours. At some point, it advertently hits the latch, frees itself and eats the fish. Researchers then place the cat back in its cage. Over a number of trials, the cat eliminates many of its irrelevant behaviours and eventually it opens the latch as soon as it is placed in the cage.
Law of effect
A performance gradually improving over a series of trials. When a reward is followed, the action is strenghtened
Reinforcement
an environmental event that follows behaviour/ the delivery of a stimulus produces either an increase or decrease in the probability of that behaviour.
How can reinforcement be done
giving an appetitive stimulus (positive reinforcement) and removing an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement)
How can punishment be done
Removal of an appetitive stimulus
Define conditioned reinforcer
is a stimulus that has been paired with a primary reinforcer. They greatly increase the generality of instrumental psychology.
Types of ratio schedules
Fixed- organism is reinforced for its first response after a certain amount of time has passed since its last reinforcement
Variable- reinforcement is provided after a certain number of responses with the number varying unpredictably. ( no pauses when the organism is operating) ( number of responses vary)
Interval schedules- reinforcement is available only after a certain time interval has elapsed and the animal makes a response
How are negative or aversive events used in instrumental conditioning
In punishment training, a response is followed by an aversive stimulus or event, which results in the response being weakened or suppressed on subsequent occasions. This is used for redirecting behaviour. This is however not always successful and can be used in an attempt to increase behaviour.
Criticisms of instrumental conditioning
The effects of punishment are not as successful as rewards
Experimentee can figure out things are not in their control and this is called learned helplessness.
Some laws of learning apply to all situations and some are born being better at a certain experiment than others.
Escape and avoidance behaviour
Escape learning- learning to make a response to terminate an ongoing aversive event
Avoidance learning- avoiding the event altogether.
Observational learning
Albert Bandura emmphasized observational learning occurs through the principles of operant conditioning. Models inform us about the consequences of our behaviours. Models often are actual persons who behaviours we observe but they can be more abstract, ( like written instructions in a book)
What does observational learning/social learning do
involves the ability to imagine and anticpate thoughts and intention are essential
Cognitions motivate actions and that a sense of self-efficancy ( an individual’s belief in their own effectiveness) is essential for complex and social learning.
What does Observational learning consist of
Evolution and the Biological Roots of Behaviour
Learn about evolutionary roots of motivated behaviour
Learn about Eating
Learn about Threat and Aggression
Learn about Mating
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
-More individuals are born in each species that survive to sexual maturity
-There is variation among the individuals of all the species, indeed no two individuals are identical
- Certain differences among individuals are adaptive. The individuals who possess the adaptive characteristic are more likely to survive and reproduce in the environment into which they are born
-Some adaptive differences among individuals are inherited
- The environment does not contain enough resources to support all individuals
- A struggle for existence occurs among individuals, those who possess the most adaptive characteristics by definition
- Individuals who survive and reproduce pass on their adaptive to their offspring, who are more inclined to inherit these adaptive traits than the offspring of parents who do not possess them
- Over many generations, this process may result in the creation of new species
Biological Perspective
Leads us to ask how various behaviours came to be- how they evolved and what purpose they were
What do we share with other species? e.g a sense of play and curiosity
What do we not share with other species- e.g language
Evolution of Behaviour
-Many aspects of who we are and how we behave are rooted in our genetic heritage
- Identical twins inherit exactly the same genetic pattern. This makes a difference.
-Identical twins usually end up more similar to each other in their personalities and preferences than other siblings even when they are raised apart.
Evolution of Behaviour : The Comparative Method
- We can get further insights into the evolution of behaviour to other organisms
-If we find parallels between, say humans’ aggression and aggression in other species, this would strengthen the belief that our aggression is fueled by genetic forces that operate in all species
-other animals are less likely to be influenced by cultural factors or complex decisions- making therefore finding parallels with other species would suggest a smaller role for these human influences
The Autonomic Nervous System
-All mammals and all birds are endotherms( organisms that maintain stable body heat
- Endothermic animals sometimes become too warm, and so need to lose heat and sometimes too cold and so preserve the heat created by their own metabolic activity
These two activities are controlled by the autonomic nervous system
Central Nervous System ( CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
Peripheric Nervous System ( PNS)
System of nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord
Peripheric nervous system
send control to the glands and smooth muscles
controls internal organs usually not under voluntary control
the peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the - sensory-somatic nervous system
-autonomic nervous system
Two brances
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous System
Triggered when body temperature is too low
Revives up body activity to prepare for rigirous activity
increased heart rate
slowing down of peristalsis ( rhythmic contractions of intestines, so not using energy during digestion
Vasoconstriction
Contraction of skins capillaries
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Triggered when body’s temperature is too high
Restored body’s internal activities
cardio slowing
speeds up peristalsis
vasodilation
widening of skin’s capillaries
THREAT AND AGGRESSION
What happens biologically when we feel threatened?
Self protection
The Emergency Reaction: Fight or Flight
Intense arousal serves as an emergency reaction that mobilizes the animal for a crisis
Internal adjustments necessary to respond to threat in environment
When threat detected: Sympathetic branch of ANS activated
Prepares body for immediate, intense activity. Surge of adrenaline released
Territoriality
Acquisition and protection of resources usually territory source of most aggression
Often expressed in humans as “personal space” preferences
Vary by culture, much is learned
Male versus female aggression
Male use physical aggression/pushing and punching .
Females use social aggression ( spreading rumors, isolating unwanted people)
Learning to be aggressive
- Explicit Learning : someone demands or teaches us
- Implicit: we observe
- seems to be causal? when we observe violence we become violent
Is aggression inevitable?
Cultural values, testerone, defending your territory
