Unit 2- More nature of psych

Question 1

A few definitions that define the meaning of psych

Answer 1

1. The scientific study of the human mind and behavior: This definition highlights the scientific nature of psychology and its focus on understanding the intricacies of human cognition, emotions, motivations, and actions through empirical research.
2. The exploration of mental processes and their influence on behavior: This definition emphasizes the investigation of mental processes such as perception, memory, attention, language, and problem-solving, as well as their impact on human behavior.
3. The understanding and explanation of individual and group behavior: Psychology seeks to unravel the complexities behind individual and collective behavior, taking into account various factors, including biological, social, cultural, and environmental influences.
4. The application of psychological principles to improve well-being: Psychology aims to use its research findings and theories to enhance human well-being in different domains, such as mental health, education, business, relationships, and personal development.
5. The study of both normal and abnormal human functioning: Psychology examines not only typical human behavior but also atypical patterns and mental health disorders, aiming to understand the causes, symptoms, and effective treatments for these conditions.
6. The consideration of the interaction between mind, body, and environment: Psychology acknowledges the complex interplay between psychological processes, physiological responses, and the external environment, recognizing the reciprocal influences among these factors.
7. The exploration of conscious and unconscious mental processes: Psychology delves into the conscious and unconscious aspects of the human mind, striving to comprehend both the immediate awareness and the hidden or subconscious influences on thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Question 2

Origin in Psych

Answer 2

The origin of psychology dates back to 1870s. The term ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words; Psyche means “soul or breath” and Logos means “knowledge or study” (study or investigation of something). The word ‘Psychology’ was not in common use before the nineteenth century, and the field of psychology did not actually become an independent science until the middle of the nineteenth century.

Psychology emerged as an independent academic discipline in 1879, when a German Professor Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the university of Leipzig, Germany.

Fittingly, his laboratory was established during the time he spent as a professor of philosophy. (Remember, the intellectual roots of psychology lie at the union of philosophy and physiology). Wundt is traditionally recognised as the founder, or father of the modern psychology, and 1879 is seen as the year that psychology finally emerged as a unique field. Prior to Wundt, it was not possible to major in psychology, because there were no official psychologists or psychology departments.

Wundt started studying the structure of mind which meant the immediate (conscious) experience, the contents and processes of subjective experience such as sensations, thoughts, feelings and emotions.Thus, formally, psychology was recognised as an independent science in 1879.

Question 3

Current definitions of Psych

Answer 3

Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application of this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986)

🔷The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)

🔷The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state and external environment (Tavris and Wade,1997)

🔷The science of behaviour and mental processes. (Lahey,1998)

🔷The science of behaviour and cognitive processes. (Baron,1999)

🔷A science in which behavioural and other evidence is used to understand the internal processes leading people (and members of other species ) to behave as they do. (Eysenck, 2004)

Question 4

Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour

Answer 4

Behaviour is a broad term and a complex phenomenon. In this section, we will discuss the nature and characteristics of behaviour.

According to psychologists, behaviour is every thing or any thing that a human being or animal does that can be observed in some way. In other words, behaviour includes all actions and responses of organisms that can be measured directly or indirectly.

Behaviour not only means bodily movements but also can include mental and cognitive processes such as feelings, attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and all other internal vents, which cannot be observed directly but can be measured indirectly through what people say and how they react to different problems and situations

Question 5

Psych as a Science

Answer 5

Psychology has been defined as a science of behaviour. But is it a science like physics, chemistry, biology and zoology or some thing different?

💎 Science is a systematized body of knowledge gathered through carefully observing and measuring events.

💎 Science is approach to knowledge, based on systematic observation. The sole aim of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects and phenomena of the material world. By using a combination of accurate observation and experimentation, logic and intuition, scientists seek to understand the rules that govern all levels of the natural universe

Question 6

Characteristics of science

Answer 6

Empirical observation
Psychology. as a science, is first of all, and above all, empirical, That is o say,
rests on experiment and observation, rather than on argument. opinion, or belief
«Systematic approach and theory

Data from observations and experiments are essential to science, but for them
to make some sense” in helping us to understand events, they must be ordered
in some way: The scientist tres to find a limited number of principles which will
summarize the data economically. Scientific theories are important tools for the
organisation of data,

Measurement
Another distinguishing feature of many sciences is measurement, defined as
assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain rules. Physics is
ranked highest (most scientific) among the sciences as it has developed the most
precise measurements.

Question 7

Reasons why psychology is a science

Answer 7

1.Empirical Approach- Psychology relies on empirical evidence, which means that tis:
based on direct observation and experimentation. Psychologists use various research
methods, such as surveys, experiments, and observations, to collect data and draw.
conclusions.

2. Objectivity: Science aims to be objective, mearing that seeks to minimize bias and
   persona opinions when studying a phenomenon. Psychologists strive to remain impartial
   and use controlled conditions to obtain reliable and valid results.
3. Systematic and Replicable: Scientific research in psychology conducted
   systematical following a step-by-s1op process and logical methods. Tis allows for the
   replication of studies by other researchers, which helps to confirm the validity of findings
   and ensure the reliability of the science.

4 Falsifiability and Testability: Scientific clams must be falsifiable meaning that they can
be proven wrong through empirical evidence. n psychology, hypotheses ae formulated
and tested though experiments or observations, allowing researchers to accept o eject
the original claims based on the evidence.

5. Theory Development: Psychology involves the development and testing of theories.
   Theories are explanations or models that help understand an predict behavior and
   menial processes. They provide a framework for organizing knowledge and guiding research within the field
6. Cumulative Knowledge: Science is a cumulative process, where new research buds
   upon existing knowledge. n psychology, researchers conduct studies that contribute 03
   body of knowledge, allowing for the advancement of the field and the refinement of
   theories.

Question 8

Different perspectives in Psychology

Answer 8

1. Structural Definition: Psychology as the study of mental structures and processes. This
   definition often refers to early schools of psychology, like structuralism, which aimed to
   analyze and understand the structure of consciousness and its elements.
2. Behavioral Definition: Psychology as the study of observable behaviors and their
   underlying causes. This definition originated from behaviorism, which emphasized the
   importance of studying behavior that can be objectively observed, measured, and
   analyzed.
3. Cognitive Definition
   perception, memory, thinking, and problem-solving. This definition is influenced by the
   cognitive perspective, which focuses on understanding the internal processes that
   contribute to human behavior.

Question 9

Continuation of Different Perspectives

Answer 9

4. Humanistic Definition: Psychology as the study of human experience, personal growth, and self-actualization. This definition is rooted in humanistic psychology, which emphasizes individual agency, subjective experiences, and the pursuit of personal fulfillment.
5. Psychodynamic Definition: Psychology as the study of unconscious thoughts, desires, and motivations that influence behavior. This definition reflects the psychodynamic perspective, which emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and early life experiences in shaping behavior.
6. Social Definition: Psychology as the study of how social factors influence behavior and interactions. This definition highlights the importance of social psychology, which examines the impact of social and cultural factors on individual and group behavior.
7. Applied Definition: Psychology as the practical application of psychological principles and theories to real-world problems. This definition emphasizes the field’s practical aspects, such as clinical psychology, counseling, industrial-organizational psychology, and other applied areas.

Question 10

What psych truly is

Answer 10

Psychology, like all academic disciplines, has its own concepts such as intelligence, personality, stress, learning, memory, thinking, perception etc. Many of the concepts of psychology are familiar to you, but many of them are new. The topics included in psychology are: the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language and thinking, growth and development, motivation and emotion, personality, stress, psychological disorders, ways of treating those disorders, sexual behaviour, and the behaviour of people in social settings such as groups and organisations.

The goals of psychology, like other sciences, are to describe, explain, predict and control the phenomena it studies.

Psychology, thus, attempts to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour and mental processes. Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of behaviour.

The knowledge of psychology can also be applied to solve various problems facing human beings, be it at home, society, work place or in the whole world. However, there are many ‘professionals’ who practice applying psychology without any type of training in psychology. They are somewhat like quacks. They may be called ‘pseudo-psychologists’.

Question 11

Pseudo-Psychology

Answer 11

Pseudo-Sciences/Pseudo-Psychology

A gemologist, graphologist, numerologist, palmist or an astrologer, all claim to solve your problems of life and predict your future. They seem to be psychologists. But these disciplines are categorized under “pseudo- psychology” or “pseudo- sciences”.

A Pseudopsychology is any unfounded system that superficially resembles psychology.

Many pseudo-psychologies give the appearance of science but are actually false. (Pseudo means “false”). Pseudo-psychologies change little over time because their followers avoid evidence that contradicts their beliefs.

Scientists, in contrast, actively look for contradictions as a way to advance knowledge. They are skeptical critics of their own theories

Question 12

Examples of pseudo-psych

Answer 12

Descriptions of some of the pseudo-psychologies are given below:
1) Palmistry
2) Phrenology
3)Graphology
4)Numerology
5) Astrology

Question 13

Graphology

Answer 13

3) Graphology: False system based on the belief that handwriting can reveal personality traits.
Indicates that personality is revealed by a person’s handwriting.
Some companies in USA use handwriting analysis to evaluate job applicants.
* Definitely, valuable in detecting forgeries.
*Careful test of accuracy in psychological studies have shown that graphologists score close to zero in rating personality.

Question 14

Palmistry

Answer 14

Palmistry: False system that claims to reveal personality traits and to predict the future by “reading” lines on the palms of the hands. It is also called ‘chiromancy’. ‘Chiromancy’ comes from the Greek word for hand (Cheir). The most famous 19th century palmist, went by the name of Cheiro. Palmistry is the practice of telling fortunes from the lines, marks and patterns on the hands, particularly, the palms.

Question 15

Phrenology

Answer 15

2) Phrenology: False and antiquated system based on the belief that personality traits are revealed by the shape of the skull. Phrenology was started in the 19th century by a German anatomy teacher, Franz Gall. His theory - ‘Personality was revealed by bumps on the skull’.
Phrenologists assumed that parts of the brain governed different personality characteristics.
Like muscles, parts of the brain that were used more often, tended to get bigger. In turn, these enlarged areas pushed on the skull causing bumps. With advances in Neurology, this was shown to be impossible, and phrenology declined. Although some brain areas do have specific functions, they are not directly related to specific personality traits.

Question 16

Numerology

Answer 16

4) Numerology: False system based on the belief that personality traits are
revealed by certain numbers, usually birthdays (date, month and year). They are the database from which a numerologist is able to describe you, sight unseen. Number values are assigned to the letters in your name. By adding these, with the numbers in your birth date, in a multitude of combinations, a numerologist establishes your key numbers. He then interprets the meaning of these key numbers, which results in a complete description of your personal characteristics.

Question 17

Astrology

Answer 17

5) Astrology: False system based on the belief that human behaviour is influenced by the position of planets and stars. It is based on the assumption that the position of the planets and stars at the time of a person’s birth determines personality characteristics and affects behaviour. In its modern guise, astrology is based on the assertion that the apparent positions of certain objects in the solar system at the time an individual is born, are somehow correlated with his or her personality, activities, preferences and even major life events such as marriages, divorces, accidents etc.

Question 18

Belief in pseudo-psychologies

Answer 18

Pseudo-psychologies are not supported by scientific evidence. Belief in pseudo- psychologies is based on the following thinking errors: i) Uncritical acceptance: The tendency to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions of oneself.
ii) Fallacy of positive instances: The tendency to remember or notice information that fits one’s expectations, while forgetting discrepancies.
iii) Barnum effect: The tendency to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in general terms. (Coon & Mitterer, 2008).
Psychology is neither common sense nor pseudoscience. Contrary to pseudo- sciences scientific psychology is based on objectivity, empirical evidence and critical thinking.

Question 19

Principles of critical thinking

Answer 19

1) Be skeptical: Keep an open mind. Politicians and advertisers try to persuade you. Accept nothing as the truth until you have examined the evidence.
2) Examine definition of term: Some statements are true when a term is defined in one way but not when the term is defined in another way. So try to follow the real meaning of a term.
3) Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments: Consider the statement that one can not learn about human beings by engaging in research with animals. One premise in the statement seems to be that human beings are not animals. One premise in the statement seems to be that human beings are not animals. We are, of course, social animals.
4) Be cautious from drawing conclusion from evidence: Suppose you see a driver drinking, before he/she met with an accident. You are too quick to draw a conclusion that ‘drinking was the cause of accident’. However, there may be other causes such as bad road, mechanical failure or fault of the other driver. One or more of which might have been the cause of the accident.

Question 20

Continuation of principles of critical thinking

Answer 20

5) Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence: You read a statement based on a research that, frustration leads to aggression. However, all frustrated people are not necessarily aggressive. Similarly, aggressive behaviour is not due to frustration alone. Though research evidence is accepted without question, researchers may differ in their interpretation of the same. So, you must think of other alternative interpretations of results rather than blindly accepting the explanation given by a researcher. 6) Do not over simplify: Most human behaviour involves complex interaction of genetic and environmental influences. Also consider the issue of whether psychopathy helps people with psychological problems. A broad answer to this question? simple yes or no? might be over simplifying. It is more worthwhile to ask, What type of psychopathy, practiced by whom, is most helpful, for what kind of problem?
7) Do not over generalise: Consider the statement that one can not learn about human beings by engaging in research with non human animals. Is the truth of the matter an all-or-nothing issue.
8) Apply critical thinking to all areas of life: A skeptical attitude and a demand for evidence are not only useful in college but are of value in all areas of life. Be skeptical when you are bombarded by TV commercials, or when political causes try to sweep you up or when you see the latest cover stories about unidentified flying objects etc..

Question 21

The Tasks of Psychology

Answer 21

1) Firstly, a science of behaviour should observe, investigate and identify factors which influence behaviour and also assess their relative influences.
2) It must investigate the role of each of these factors, separately and together in producing similarities and differences in behaviour.
3) Based on these investigations, psychology should arrive at generalisations in the form of theories, laws and principles explaining the similarities and also the differences in behaviour
4) It should also explain the complimentary functions of the factors and the processes, in generating similarities as well as differences among people.
5) Since behaviour is purposive, psychology must investigate the nature, kinds and number of purposes, their origin and development, and the relationship among them.
6) Since behaviour changes, it is the responsibility of psychology to study and explain the nature of such changes, kinds, the processes which govern them and the interaction among different kinds of changes.
7) While changes in behaviour are to be understood, stability and consistency in behaviour also need to be explained.
8) The master concern of psychology is to explain how change and stability, similarities and differences, are organised and integrated to produce both generality and uniqueness in behaviour.