Unit 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

A

Memory

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2
Q

The processing of information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning.

A

Encoding

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3
Q

The process of retaining encoded information over time.

A

Storage

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4
Q

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

A

Retrieval

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5
Q

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

A

Parallel Processing

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6
Q

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

A

Sensory Memory

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7
Q

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

A

Short-Term Memory

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8
Q

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

A

Long-Term Memory

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9
Q

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

A

Working Memory

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10
Q

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

A

Explicit Memory

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11
Q

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

A

Effortful Processing

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12
Q

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

A

Automatic Processing

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13
Q

Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called non-declarative memory.)

A

Implicit Memory

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14
Q

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

A

Iconic Memory

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15
Q

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sound and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

A

Echoic Memory

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16
Q

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

A

Chunking

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17
Q

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

A

Mnemonics

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18
Q

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

A

Spacing Effect

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19
Q

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

A

Testing Effect

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20
Q

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

A

Shallow Processing

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21
Q

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

A

Deep Processing

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22
Q

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

A

Hippocampus

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23
Q

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

A

Flashbulb memory

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24
Q

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

A

Long-Term Potentiaton (LTP)

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25
Q

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

A

Recall

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26
Q

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

A

Recognition

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27
Q

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

A

Relearning

28
Q

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

A

Priming

29
Q

The tendency to recall experience that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

A

Mood-Congruent Memory

30
Q

Our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.

A

Serial Position Effect

31
Q

An inability to form new memories.

A

Anterograde Amnesia

32
Q

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past.

A

Retrograde Amnesia

33
Q

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

A

Proactive Interference

34
Q

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

A

Retroactive Interference

35
Q

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

A

Repression

36
Q

Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

A

Misinformation Effect

37
Q

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

A

Source Amnesia

38
Q

That eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

A

Deja Vu

39
Q

All the mental activities associated, with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

A

Cognition

40
Q

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

A

Concept

41
Q

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

A

Prototype

42
Q

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

A

Creativity

43
Q

Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

A

Convergent Thinking

44
Q

Expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).

A

Divergent Thinking

45
Q

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with usually speedier - but also more error prone - use of heuristics.

A

Algorithm

46
Q

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

A

Heuristics

47
Q

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

A

Insight

48
Q

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

A

Confirmation Bias

49
Q

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

A

Mental Set

50
Q

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

A

Intuition

51
Q

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

A

Representativeness Heuristic

52
Q

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

A

Availability Heuristics

53
Q

The tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

A

Overconfidence

54
Q

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

A

Belief perseverance

55
Q

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements.

A

Framing

56
Q

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

A

Language

57
Q

In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

A

Phoneme

58
Q

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

A

Morpheme

59
Q

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

A

Grammar

60
Q

Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

A

Babbling Stage

61
Q

The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

A

One-Word Stage

62
Q

Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.

A

Two-Word Stage

63
Q

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - “go car” - using mostly nouns and verbs.

A

Telegraphic Speech

64
Q

Impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).

A

Aphasia

65
Q

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

A

Broca’s Area

66
Q

Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

A

Wernicke’s Area

67
Q

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

A

Linguistic Determinism