Unit 5 - The Industrial Revolution Flashcards
1
Q
How did the Industrial Revolution transform the countries it touched?
A
It transformed economies and created distinctive industrial societies with new working environments, social classes, values, conflict, protests, and patterns of migration
2
Q
What effects did the Industrial Revolution have on places like Latin America?
A
It had profound effects on regions like Latin America that did not industrialize but increasingly supplied the insatiable demands of industrialized economies for raw materials and markets
3
Q
In what way did the Industrial Revolution mark a response to an energy crisis?
A
The Industrial Revolution was a twofold revolution–drawing on new sources of energy and new technologies–that combined to transform economic and social life on the planet
4
Q
What energy was used during the Industrial Revolution?
A
- It came to rely on fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which supplemented and largely replaced the earlier energy sources of wind, water, wood, and the muscle power of people and animals that had long sustained humankind
- Guano was used as a potent fertilizer and enabled highly productive input-intensive farming practices
5
Q
Explain the significance of technology during the Industrial Revolution.
A
- A variety of innovations transformed cotton textile production
- The coal-fired steam engine provided a limitless source of power that could be used to drive any number of machines as well as locomotives and oceangoing ships
- Agriculture was impacted as mechanical reapers, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and refrigeration transformed this industry
- These new sources of energy and new technologies gave rise to an enormously increased output of goods and services
- Innovations in farm machinery, irrigation pumps, and especially railroads and steamships that brought fertilizer from distant lands and transported crops grown in remote, often landlocked regions to world markets, allowed for the enormous expansion of tilled lands
6
Q
How did the Industrial Revolution affect humankind?
A
- It increased the capacity of human societies to produce wealth, to extend life expectancies, and to increase human numbers (world pop. doubled between 1800 and 1900)
- It improved the material conditions of life
- Allowed humankind to reengineer ever-larger parts of the planet that in the past had only lightly populated and exploited
-New agricultural lands, alongside new pasturelands, fed a growing population that was also living longer thanks to advances in public health and medicine
7
Q
Explain the pollution and environmental degradation that took place in this time period.
A
- The extraction of raw materials–coal,iron ore, and petroleum–altered landscapes and polluted local groundwater
- Factory waste and human sewage generated by industrial towns emptied into rivers, turning them into poisonous cesspools
- Smoke from coal-fired industries and domestic use polluted the air in urban areas and sharply increased the incidence of respiratory illness
-The growing use of fossil fuels began a gradual increase in greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere, impacting climate change
8
Q
List the overall economic and social changes that took place in Great Britain.
A
- Multiple technological innovations and factory-based production vastly increased output of cotton (52 million pounds to 588 million pounds)
- Railroads became more prominent
- Most of this dramatic increase in production occurred in mining, manufacturing, and services
- Agriculture, which was the dominant economic sector in every civilization, shrank in relative importance
- Emerging beliefs that people should have the liberty to do with their wealth and their lives as they please
- New set of ideas (classical liberalism) provided the ideological underpinnings of industrial capitalism
9
Q
Explain the changes in British society due to the Industrial Revolution, particularly in terms of the Aristocracy.
A
- As a class, the British aristocracy declined as the Industrial Revolution unfolded, as well as large landowners in every industrial society
- As urban wealth became more important, landed aristocrats had to make way for businessmen, manufacturers, and bankers, newly enriched by the Industrial Revolution
10
Q
What characterized the British middle class?
A
- Contained extremely wealthy factory and mine owners, bankers, and merchants
- Benefited the most from industrialization
- Smaller businessman, doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, journalists, scientists, and other professionals required in any industrial society were far more numerous among the middle class
- Ideas of thrift and hard work, a rigid morality, respectability, and cleanliness characterized the middle-class culture
- Politically, they were liberals, favoring constitutional and limited government, private property, free trade, and social reform within limits
Lower middle class: - Included people employed in the growing service sector as clerks, salespeople, bank tellers, hotel staff, secretaries, telephone operators, police officers, etc.
11
Q
How did gender roles and family dynamics change during this time period, especially for middle class women?
A
- Women in middle-class families were increasingly cast as homemakers, wives, and mothers, charged with created an emotional haven for their men and a refuge from a capitalist world
- They were expected to be the moral centers of family life, the educators of respectability, and the managers of household consumption as shopping
- By the late 19th century, some middle-class women began to enter the teaching, clerical, and nursing professions, and in the second half of the 20th century, many more flooded into the labor force
12
Q
How did the Industrial Revolution affect the lower classes, known as the laboring classes?
A
- 70% of Britain’s 19th century population were manual workers in the mines, ports, factories, construction sites, workshops, and farms of an industrializing Britain. Their conditions changed over time, but laboring classes suffered the most and benefited least from the Industrial Revolution
- Average life expectancy dropped to 39.5 years
13
Q
What types of political reform moves rose from the conditions of the laboring classes?
A
- By 1815, about 1 million workers, mostly artisans, created a variety of “friendly societies”. With dues contributed by members, these working-class self-help groups provided insurance against sickness, a decent funeral, and an opportunity for social life
- Skilled artisans who had been displaced by machine-produced goods and forbidden to organize in legal unions sometimes wrecked the offending machinery and burned the mills that took their jobs
14
Q
How did the ideas of Karl Marx affect the industrial world?
A
He concluded that industrial capitalism was an inherently unstable system, doomed to collapse in a revolutionary upheaval that would give birth to an classless socialist society, thus ending forever the ancient conflict between rich and poor
15
Q
What factors led to the movement away from revolutionary ideas like Marx’s in the second half of the nineteenth century?
A
- Improving material conditions during the second half of the 19th century helped move the working-class movement away from a revolutionary posture
- Wages rose under pressure from unions, cheap imported food improved working-class diets, infant mortality rates fell, etc
- Marx didn’t foresee the development of this intermediate social group, nor had he imagined that workers could better their standard of living within a capitalist framework
16
Q
What factors facilitated the migration of Europeans during the Industrial Revolution?
A
- 20% of Europe’s population (50-55 million people) left home for the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and elsewhere
- They were pushed by poverty, a rapidly growing population, and the displacement of peasant farming and artisan manufacturing
- They were also pulled abroad by the enormous demand for labor overseas, the ready availability of land in some places, and the relatively cheap transportation of railroads and steamships
17
Q
What was the global impact of this migration?
A
- It temporarily increased Europe’s share of the world’s population and scattering Europeans around the world
- In 1800, less than 1 percent of the total world population consisted of overseas Europeans and their descendents, but by 1930, they represented 11 percent
- Outposts of European civilization in the South Pacific overwhelmed their native populations through conquest, acquisition of their lands, and disease
- Smaller numbers of Europeans made their way to South Africa, Kenya, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Algeria, and elsewhere, where they injected a sharp racial divide into those colonized territories
18
Q
What impact did this European migration have on the Americas?
A
- Latin America received about 20% of the European migratory stream, mostly from Italy, Spain, and Portugal, with Argentina and Brazil accounting for some 80% of those immigrants
- Considered “white”, they enhanced the social weight of the European element in those countries and enjoyed economic advantages over the multiracial, Indian, and African populations
19
Q
Describe the immigrant experience in the United States.
A
- It was far larger and more diverse than elsewhere
- Had around 32 million newcomers arriving from all over Europe between 1820 and 1930
- The United States offered affordable land to many and industrial jobs to many more, neither of which were widely available in Latin America
- The newcomers were seen as distinctly inferior, even “un-American” and blamed for crime, labor unrest, and socialist ideas
- The immigration contributed much to the westward expansion of the United States, to the establishment of a European-derived culture in a vast area of North America, and to the displacement of the native peoples of the region
20
Q
What factors contributed to the facilitation of Europeanization of Siberia?
A
- The availability of land, the prospect of greater freedom from tsarist restrictions and from the exploitation of aristocratic landowners, and the construction of the trans-Siberian railroad facilitated the continued Europeanization of Siberia
- Similar to the United States, the Russian government encouraged and aided the Europeanization, hoping to forestall Chinese pressures in the region and relieve growing population pressures in the more densely settled western lands of the empire
21
Q
Identify the similar outcomes industrialization had across the globe.
A
- New technologies and sources of energy generated vast increases in production and spawned an unprecedented urbanization
- Class structures changes as aristocrats, artisans, and peasants declined as classes, while the middle class and a factory working class grew in numbers and social prominence
- Working-class frustration and anger gave rise to trade unions and socialist movements, injecting a new element of social conflict into industrial societies
- Working women usually received lower wages than their male counterparts, had difficulty joining unions, and were accused of taking jobs from men
- Middle-class women generally withdrew from paid labor altogether, and their working-class counterparts sought to do so after marriage
22
Q
Identify the differences among how the Industrial Revolution unfolded across different areas.
A
There were differences in the pace and timing of industrialization, the size and shape of major industries, the role of the state, the political expression of social conflict, and other factors
EXAMPLES:
- French Industrialization occurred more slowly and less disruptively than did that of Britain
- Germany focused initially on heavy industry–iron, steel, and coal – rather than the textile industry with which Britain had begun
23
Q
What accounted for the growth of American industrialization?
A
- The country’s huge size, the ready availability of natural resources, its expanding domestic market, and its relative political stability made the US the world’s leading industrial power by 1914
- About ⅓ of the capital investment that financed its remarkable growth came from British, French, and German capitalists (closely linked to Europe)
24
Q
What role did the US Government play in industrialization?
A
- Tax breaks, huge grants of public land to railroad companies, law enabling the easy formation of corporations, and the absence of much overt regulation of industry all fostered the rise of very large business enterprises
- It played an important role, though less directly than in Germany or Japan
25
Q
List the industrial pioneering techniques and inventions of the United States.
A
- Interchangeable parts
- The assembly line
- Scientific management to produce for a mass market
- Model T (car by Henry Ford)
- urban development stores generated a middle-class culture of consumption
26
Q
What kind of social divisions did America experience?
A
- Preindustrial America had boasted of a relative social equality, quite unlike that of Europe, but by the end of the 19th century, a widening gap had separated the classes
- In Carnegie’s Homestead steel plant, employees worked every day except Christmas and the Fourth of July, often for twelve hours a day
- In Manhattan, where millions of European immigrants disembarked, many lived in 5 or 6 story buildings with 4 families and 2 toilets on each floor
- Poor conditions generated labor protest, the formation of unions, strikes, and sometimes violence
27
Q
What accounted for the weakness of socialism in the United States?
A
- Ideas of socialism did not appeal to American workers as much as European laborers
- No major socialist movement emerged
- A diverse industrial labor force undermined the class solidarity of American workers, making it far more difficult to sustain class-oriented political parties and a socialist labor movement
- Workers with property generally found socialism less attractive than those without
28
Q
What types of political challenges towards capitalism flourished?
A
- In the 1890s, among small farmers in the U.S. South, West, and Midwest, populists railed against banks, industrialists, monopolies, the existing money system, and both major political parties, all of which they though were dominated by the corporate interests of the eastern elites
- More successful, especially in the early 20th century, were the Progressives, who pushed for specific reforms, such as wages-and-hours legislation, better sanitation standards, antitrust laws, and greater governmental intervention in the economy
29
Q
What did the Russian government and society look like pre-revolution?
A
- Russia still had no national parliament, no legal political parties, and no nationwide elections
- The tsar, answerable to God alone, ruled unchecked
- Russian society society was dominated by a titled nobility of various ranks. Its upper levels included great landowners, who furnished the state with military officers and leading government officials
- Most Russians were peasant serfs until 1861
- Many nobles were highly westernized
30
Q
Compare the economic and social change in Russia and the United States.
A
- In the United States, free farmers, workers, and businessmen sought new opportunities and operated in a political system that gave them varying degrees of expression
- In autocratic Russia, change was far more often initiated by the states, in its continuing efforts to catch up with its more powerful and innovative European competitors
31
Q
What was the focus of Russia’s industrialization?
A
- It focused particularly on railroads and heavy industry and was fueled by a substantial amount of foreign investment
- By 1900, Russia ranked 4th in the world in steel production and had major industries in coal, textiles, and oil
32
Q
What were the social outcomes of the Russian Revolution?
A
- A growing middle class of businessmen and professionals increasingly took shape
- As modern and educated people, many in the middle class objected strongly to the deep conservatism of tsarist Russia and sought a greater role in political life, but they were also dependent on the state for contracts and jobs and for suppressing the growing radicalism of the workers, which they greatly feared
- Millions flocked to the new centers of industrial development
- Although factory workers constituted only about 5 percent of Russia’s total population, they quickly developed a radical class consciousness, based on harsh conditions and the absence of any legal outlet for their grievances
33
Q
What changes resulted from the Russian Revolution of 1905?
A
- Forced the tsar’s regime to make more substantial reforms than it had ever contemplated
- Granted a constitution, legalized both trade unions and political parties, and permitted the election of a national assembly, called the Duma
- Censorship was eased, and plans were under way for universal primary education
- Industrial development continued at a rapid rate, so that by 1914 Russia stood fifth in the world in terms of overall output
- About 1,250,000 workers, representing about 40 percent of the entire industrial workforce, went out on strike
34
Q
What was the outcome of these changes (Russian Revolution of 1905)?
A
- The tsar’s limited political reforms failed to tame working-class radicalism or to bring social stability to Russia
- In Russian political life, the people generally, and even the middle class, had only a very limited voice
- Representatives of even the privileged classes had become so alienated by the government’s intransigence that many felt revolution was inevitable
- Various revolutionary groups, many of them socialist, published pamphlets and newspapers, organized trade unions, and spread their messages among workers and peasants
35
Q
What did political life look like in Latin America post independence?
A
- It decimated populations, diminished herds of livestock, flooded or closed silver mines, abandoned farms, shrinking international trade and investment capital, and empty national treasuries
- The four major administrative unites (viceroyalties) of Spanish America dissolved into 18 separate countries and regional revolts wracked Brazil in the early decades of its independent life
- International wars (Peru vs Bolivia, Mexico vs US)
- Political life was turbulent and unstable. Conservatives favored centralized authority and sought to maintain the social status quo of the colonial era in alliance with the Catholic Church, which at independence owned half of all productive land
36
Q
Discuss the continuities in society following independence (Latin America).
A
- Women remained disenfranchised and wholly outside of formal political life
- Slavery persisted in both Brazil and Cuba until the late 1880s
- Productive economic resources such as businesses, ranches, and plantations remained overwhelmingly in the hands of creole white men, who were culturally oriented toward Europe
- The vast majority (Blacks, Indigenous peoples, and many multiracial people of both sexes) remained impoverished, working small subsistence farms or laboring in the mines or on the haciendas of the well-to-do
37
Q
How was Latin America linked to the global economy?
A
- The new technology of the steamship cut the sailing time between Britain and Argentina almost in half
- The underwater telegraph instantly brought the latest news and fashions of Europe to Latin America
- Rapid growth of Latin American exports ot the industrializing countries, which now needed the food products, raw materials, and markets of these new nations (export boom increased value of goods sold abroad by a factor of 10)
38
Q
How did Latin America try to become like Europe?
A
- Latin American cities lost their colonial cobblestones, white-plastered walls, and red-tiled roofs. They became modern metropolises.
- They sought to attract more Europeans to become more like Europe
- They sought to increase their white populations by deliberately recruiting impoverished Europeans with the promise, mostly unfulfilled, of a new and prosperous life in the New World
39
Q
Who benefitted from the Latin American export economy?
A
- Upper-class landowners gained much as exports flourished because their property values soared
- Middle-class urban dwellers such as merchants, office workers, lawyers, and other professionals also grew in numbers and prosperity as their skills proved valuable in a modernizing society
40
Q
What did life look like for the lower class (in Latin America)?
A
- A majority of the lower class lived in rural areas, where they suffered the most and benefited the least from the export boom
- Government attacks on communal landholding and peasant indebtedness to wealthy landowners combined to push many farmers off their land or into remote and poor areas where they could barely make a living
- Many wound up as dependent laborers or peons on the haciendas of the wealthy, where their wages were often too meager to support a family
- Women and children, who had earlier remained at home to tend the family plot, were required to join the men of the family as field laborers
41
Q
Explain how the Mexican Revolution transformed the country.
A
Mexico had a new constitution that:
- proclaimed universal male suffrage (right to vote)
- provided for the redistribution of land
- stripped the Catholic Church of any role in public education and forbade it to own land
- announced unheard-of rights for workers, such as minimum wage and an eight-hour workday
- placed restrictions on foreign ownership of property
42
Q
Why did the Industrial Revolution fail to develop in Latin America? What did Latin America do instead?
A
- Economically powerful groups such as landowners benefited greatly from exporting agricultural products and had little incentive to invest in manufacturing
- A social structure that relegated some 90% of its population to an impoverished lower class generated only a very small market for manufactured goods
- Many governments depended on taxing imports to fill their treasuries
- Instead of their own Industrial Revolution, Latin America developed a form of economic growth that was largely financed by capital from abroad and dependent on European and North American prosperity and decisions
43
Q
Explain the global impact of industrialization.
A
- In the European heartland of the early Industrial Revolution, its social and economic transformations attracted the most attention (technological innovations allowed production of goods to increase, large scale movement of Europeans, landowning aristocracy went down, increased inequality, no social harmony)
- The US and Japan initiated substantial industrialization programs of their own
- In Russia, industrialization led to a vast revolutionary upheaval and the beginnings of world communism
- Latin American countries experienced a great expansion in their exports of raw materials and received much European investment, though without generating an Industrial Revolution of their own
- Much of Asia and Africa came under European colonial rule and the Industrial Revolution provided Europeans with both the motives and means to exercise power on a global scale
44
Q
By the early 21st Century, what were the major concerns surrounding industrialization?
A
- Focused largely on its dire threat to the natural environment
- Even as governments and individuals continued to pursue the dream of greater economic growth through industrialization, questions about the sustainability of modern industrial life had prompted the emergence of a global environmental movement
- By 2020, widespread discussion about climate crisis had pushed environmental issues higher on the political agenda
45
Q
Through all of the negative effects of the Industrial Revolution, why was it widely viewed in a positive light?
A
- For the most part, industrialization was seen as progress and its unfortunate byproducts were a price well worth paying
- The problems were perceived as local, rather than national or global
- It was widely viewed as hopeful as Karl Marx understood it as ensuring the end of poverty and class conflict
- It enabled billions of people to live longer, healthier, and more materially abundant lives
