Unit 5 Part 1 - Terminology Flashcards
memory
learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info
recall
person retrieves information learned earlier
(ex: fill-in-the-blank test)
recognition
person identifies items previously learned
(ex: multiple choice test)
relearning
assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
encoding
the process of getting info into the memory system
storage
process of retaining encoded info over time
retrieval
process of getting info out of memory storage
parallel processing
processing many factors of something simultaneously and unconsciously
common mode of info processing for brain
sensory memory
immediate, very brief recording of sensory info into memory system
overlearning
repeated rehearsal of info that improves retention of it
short-term memory
holds few pieces of info briefly before forgetting or storing them
(ex: phone number)
working memory
short-term definition but more in depth
adds conscious processing of current auditory and visual info, and processing of info retrieved from long-term memory
long-term memory
mostly permanent and limitless storehouse of memory system
knowledge, skills, experiences
explicit memory, declarative memory
retention of facts and experiences that can be consciously known and declared
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and effort
automatic processing (4)
unconscious encoding of incidental info
space, time, frequency, well-learned info (ex: language)
implicit memory, nondeclarative memory
learned skills or classically conditioned associations
not consciously retrieved
iconic memory
sensory memory of visual stimuli
no more than few tenths of a second
echoic memory
sensory memory of auditory stimuli
sounds and words can be recalled 3-4 seconds after heard (even if distracted)
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
(ex: hierarchies)
often automatic
mnemonics
memory aids
techniques that use vivid imagery or organizational devices (ex: acronyms)
spacing effect
distributed study or practice tends to yield better long-term retention than cramming
testing effect, retrieval practice effect, test-enhanced learning
enhance memory by retrieving info rather than rereading it
shallow processing
encoding at basic level
based on structure or appearance of words
(ex: writing “there” instead of “their”)
deep processing
encoding semantically, meaning of words
better retention than shallow processing
semantic memory
explicit, conscious memory system (1 of 2)
facts and general knowledge
episodic memory
explicit, conscious memory system (1 of 2)
personally experienced events
hippocampus
temporal-node neural center in limbic system
processes explicit, conscious memories
loading dock for memories; transfers them elsewhere
prefrontal cortex
processes working/short-term memories
memory consolidation
process of transferring and storing long-term memories away from hippocampus (where they’re processed)
done while sleeping
cerebellum
forms and stores implicit memories made through classical conditioning
(ex: flinching because of sound of air)
basal ganglia
forms procedural or skill implicit memories
(ex: learning to ride a bike)
infantile amnesia
lack of memories from before 4 years old
amygdala
processes and stores emotional memories
(ex: trauma)
flashbulb memories
flashbulb memories
clear, sustained memories of emotionally significant event
processed by amygdala
long-term potentiation (LPT)
cell’s firing potential increases after brief, rapid stimulation
neural basis for learning and memory
physical basis for memory
retrieval cues
used to recall memories; often senses
(ex: remember answer of question on test by tasting the same gum chewed while studying)
priming, memoryless memory
activation of particular association in memory
unconscious
(ex: saw mcdonalds ad earlier in day, so now want mcdonalds)
encoding specificity principle
idea that cues and contexts specific to a memory are effective when trying to recall it
memories are context-dependent
mood-congruent memory
tendency to recall memories consistent with your current mood
state-congruent memory
being in a similar situation as one in a memory will cause you to recall that memory
(ex: standing in childhood home reminds you of memories from that house)
serial position effect
tendency to best recall only the first and the last items in a list
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
inability to retrieve or recall old memories
proactive interference
old information disrupts the recall of new information
(ex: using old password after just changing it to a new one)
retroactive interference
when new info disrupts the recall of old info
(ex: after getting a new locker combination, you only remember the new one and forget your old one)
repression
psychoanalytic theory; controversial
hides from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
reconsolidation
memories get altered every time they are recalled
are our memories fake?
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading info distorts a memory of an event
(ex: told that as a kid you got sick from a food, so now you avoid that food)
imagination effect
imagining something occurred can eventually make someone believe it actually happened
source amnesia, source misattribution
faulty info for how, when, or where info was learned or imagined
divergent thinking (and how it is measured)
can determine many solutions to a problem
measured in originality, fluency, flexibility, and elaboration
convergent thinking
come to a single answer
(ex: multiple choice question)
spatial, verbal, and mathematical
cognition
all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
best example of a category
(ex: crow is prototype of birds)
creativity
ability to produce new and valuable ideas
algorithm (pro + con)
pro: methodical and logical rule or procedure that guarantees solution to a problem
con: requires time and effort
heuristic (pro + con)
thinking shortcut; strategy based
pro: quick and efficient problem solving and judgements
con: increased risk of errors compared to algorithms
insight (con)
sudden aha! reaction; not strategy based
con: not guaranteed to occur
confirmation bias (pro + con)
pro: can quickly find evidence supporting own side
con: cannot recognize contradictory evidence as easily
fixation (con)
cannot view problems from new angle
con: hinders divergent thinking and creativity
functional fixation
cannot use an object for anything other than its intended purpose
intuition (pro + con)
fast and automatic feelings and thoughts
pro: super adaptive
con: overfeel and underthink
mental set
tendency to approach problem in one specific way that was successful in the past
(ex: procrastination)
overconfidence (pro + con)
overestimate correctness of beliefs and judgements
pro: happier on average
con: increased risk of errors
representativeness heuristic
determine likelihood of events based on how well they match a specific prototype
(ex: “small nerdy poetry guy is an english professor” actually a truck driver)
availability heuristic
determine likelihood of event based on most readily available memory even if unreasonable
(ex: people fear sharks more than guns, but guns kill more)
framing
wording something for a specific response
(ex: “evil villain” vs “misunderstood character”)
language
spoken, written, and signed words and the ways they’re combined to form a meaning
phonemes
smallest distinctive sounds in language
not the same as letters
(ex: “b”)
english has about 40
morphemes
smallest sounds in language that hold meaning
(ex: “reader” —> “read,” “er,” “s”)
grammar
rules of a language
semantics (meaning from sounds)
syntax (order of words in sentences)
babbling stage
4 months: random sounds unrelated to household language
10 months: related to household language
one-word stage
1-2 years: kid speaks in single word sentences
two-word stage
2 years: kid speaks in two word statements
often in telegraphic speech
telegraphic speech
spoken like a telegram
(ex: “go car”)
aphasia (Broca’s and Wernicke’s)
impairment of language
damage to Broca’s area: impairs speaking
damage to Wernicke’s area: impairs understanding
Broca’s area
controls speech
in left hemisphere of frontal lobe
Wernicke’s area
involved in language comprehension
in left temporal lobe
linguistic determinism
the idea that language controls the way we think
outdated and extreme
linguistic influence
the idea that language influences the way we think based on culture
(ex: English has a word for every number, so we can count. another language only counts to two, so they cannot process the difference in amounts)
primacy effect
tendency for people to remember the beginning of a list rather than the middle
recency effect
the tendency of people to remember things at the end of a list rather than the middle
belief perseverence
maintaining a belief despite information that strongly contradicts it
