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Biology > Unit 5 - Health, Disease And The Development Of Medicines > Flashcards

Unit 5 - Health, Disease And The Development Of Medicines Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is WHO and what do they do?

A

The World Health Organisation

They are responsible for coordinating ways to improve health across the world.

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2
Q

According to WHO, what does good health mean?

A

‘Complete physical, social and mental well being’

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3
Q

What does physical well-being mean?

A

Free from disease, eating and sleeping well, not taking harmful substances and regular activity.

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4
Q

What is social well-being

A

How well you get on with other people and how they affect you.

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5
Q

What is mental well-being?

A

How good you feel about yourself.

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6
Q

Why might people with a lower income have a shorter life? (3)

A

They cannot afford a healthy diet, cannot access medical care, natural disasters mean more diseases and fewer doctors.

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7
Q

What is a disease?

A

A problem with a structure or process in the body that is not the result of injury.

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8
Q

How might a disease occur?

A

Microorganisms get into the body and change how it works.

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9
Q

What are pathogens?

A

Microorganisms that cause a disease

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10
Q

What are communicable disease?

A

Diseases that can be passed from an infected person to other people.

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11
Q

What is a non-communicable disease?

A

A disease that are not passed from person to person

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12
Q

What type of disease does a pathogen cause?

A

A communicable disease

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13
Q

What are non-communicable diseases caused by?

A

Our lifestyle, the way we live or a fault in our genes

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14
Q

What does correlated disease mean?

A

When a disease makes you more likely to get another disease

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15
Q

What are possible causes of correlations of a disease? (3)

A

Damaging immune system (easier for communicable diseases) damaging bodies natural barriers (can get into the body), stopping organs working properly (more likely for other diseases to occur)

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16
Q

What is a genetic disorder?

A

A genetic disease caused by faulty alleles of genes.

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17
Q

How are genetic disorders passed?

A

They are only passed to the offspring but not to any other person.

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18
Q

What is malnutrition?

A

Non-communicable diseases that occur when you get too little or too much of particular nutrients from your food.

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19
Q

What is a deficiency disease?

A

A disease caused by a lack in nutrients.

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20
Q

What disease can be caused by a lack of protein?

A

Kwashiorkor - enlarged belly

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21
Q

What disease can be caused by a lack of iron?

A

Anaemia - smaller red blood cells, tiredness

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22
Q

What disease can be caused by a lack of vitamin c

A

Scurvy - swelling and bleeding gums

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23
Q

What disease can be caused by a lack of calcium/vitamin d

A

Osteomalacia - soft and brittle bones

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24
Q

What is a drug?

A

A substance that changes the way the body works

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25
Q

What happens if an excess amount of ethanol is taken?

A

Liver diseases can occur including cirrhosis

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26
Q

Where is ethanol found?

A

In alcoholic drinks

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27
Q

What is the cost of treating people with liver disease?

A

£500 million each year

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28
Q

What is obesity?

A

A malnutrition caused by a diet that is high in sugars and fats.

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29
Q

What do we use fat for?

A

To store some vitamins and a store of energy.

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30
Q

What is cardiovascular disease?

A

A disease as a result of the circulatory system functioning poorly due to an increase in fat.

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31
Q

What is a sign of cardiovascular disease?

A

High blood pressure or even a heart attack.

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32
Q

What die BMI stand for?

A

Body Mass Index

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33
Q

What is the formulae for BMI

A

BMI = mass (kg)/ height^2 (m)

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34
Q

What BMI value is considered obese?

A

30 or above

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35
Q

What type of fat is closely linked to cardiovascular disease?

A

Abdominal fat

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36
Q

What method is better than your BMI at measuring your abdominal fat?

A

Waist-to-hip ratio

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37
Q

How do you work out your waist:hip

A

Waist/hip

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38
Q

How can tobacco smoke cause a build-up of fat in an artery? What disease can it cause,

A

Substances from the tobacco damage the artery lining.
Fat builds up in the artery wall where the lining was damaged.
A blood clot may block the artery or break off and block another part of the artery causing a heart attack or stroke.
This causes cardiovascular disease

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39
Q

How do substances from tobacco get into the blood?

A

When they are breathed in, they are absorbed by the lungs and transported around the body.

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40
Q

What is the main cause to cardiovascular disease?

A

A high blood pressure

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41
Q

How can a high blood pressure be treated?

A

Exercise more, give up smoking or be given medicines

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42
Q

How can narrowed blood vessels be widened?

A

By inserting a small mesh tube (stent) to hold it open.
New blood vessels can be inserted when arteries in heart are blocked so the heart tissue gets oxygen and nutrients.
Patients with these operations may be given medicines to help prevent heart attacks and strokes.

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43
Q

What does cholera cause

A

Severe diarrhoea

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44
Q

What is the pathogen that causes cholera

A

The bacterium Vibrio cholerae

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45
Q

What bacterium causes tuberculosis

A

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

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46
Q

What happens if you have tuberculosis

A

Damage the lungs resulting in blood specked mucus after coughing, fever and weight loss

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47
Q

What is a host of a disease

A

Something that is affected by the disease

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48
Q

What is a disease of Ashtrees caused by a fungus

A

Chalara dieback

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49
Q

What is a protist

A

One of the kingdoms

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50
Q

What protist causes malaria

A

Plasmodium

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51
Q

Why are viruses not true organisms

A

They don’t have a cellular structure

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52
Q

How do viruses multiply

A

By infecting a cell in taking over their cells DNA copying processes to make new viruses

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53
Q

What does Ebola virus cause?

A

The breakdown of blood vessels, liver cells and kidney cells. This leads to haemorrhagic fever

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54
Q

How does HIV attack the body

A

It attacks and destroys white blood cells in the immune system

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55
Q

Why can people with HIV develop AIDs?

A

Their immune systems cannot protect them from secondary infections

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56
Q

What are ulcers

A

Sore areas where bacteria attacks stomach lining

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57
Q

How do most pathogens spread?

A

From one host to another

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58
Q

How are colds and flus spread?

A

When people sneeze or cough, tiny droplets containing pathogens spread into the air which can last around a day

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59
Q

How does chalara dieback spread?

A

Strong winds carry chalara spores (cells that can grow into new organisms) over long distances.

60
Q

Why are diseases such as typhoid more common in undeveloped areas?

A

Their water is not treated to kill the pathogens

61
Q

What is hygiene?

A

Keeping things clean to remove or kill pathogens

62
Q

How is helicobacter bacteria spread (2)

A

When people touch other people’s food after going to the toilet. Or from flies which have touched faeces and people’s food.

63
Q

Why does Ebola virus require extreme hygiene practices?

A

The virus can easily enter people’s bodies through broken skin or eyes, nose or mouth.

64
Q

Why did the Ebola outbreak in West Africa become epidemic?

A

Many people became infected by burning those who had died with the disease.

65
Q

What does epidemic mean?

A

A widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.

66
Q

How does a mosquito spread malaria?

A

The malaria protists are carried in their blood that they sucked from an infected person. They then inject the protist directly into the blood of the next person they feed on

67
Q

What are vectors?

A

Organism that carry pathogens from one person to another

68
Q

What do all viruses have?

A

One or more strands of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat, or capsid.

69
Q

How do viruses make new genetic material and proteins?

A

They have to enter a living cell and take over the cells processes.

70
Q

Give 2 viruses that invade the human body

A

HIV virus

Ebola virus

71
Q

How does a virus make a new virus

A

The cell copies the viral genetic material to make new viral genetic material and proteins. These then make a new virus which escapes from the cell

72
Q

Give 2 ways a virus escapes from the cell

A

Some completely breakdown the cell (lysis)

Others push through the membrane

73
Q

Which pathway do viruses that cause lysis go through?

A

Lytic pathway

74
Q

What is the lytic cycle?

A

Virus attaches to a cell and injects genetic material
The viral genetic material forms a circle
New viral genetic material and proteins are produced and assembled
The cell lyses releasing the virus

75
Q

What is the lysogenic cycle?

A

After the viral genetic material forms a circle…
Viral genetic material injects itself into the bacterial chromosome
Bacterium reproduces replicating the viral genetic material
Cell and viral genetic material reproduce many times
Occasionally, the viral genetic material separates form the bacterial chromosome causing the lytic cycle

76
Q

What are bacterial lawn plates?

A

A plate used to study the effect of viruses on bacteria

77
Q

How do bacterial lawn plates work?

A

Bacteria grows on the nutrient agar. A solution containing viruses is added to the plate. After a day, two clear circles can be seen where bacteria have been killed by the viruses.

78
Q

How is the cross-sectional area of a clear circle calculated?

A

Cross-sectional area = PiR^2

79
Q

What is a physical barrier for a plant?

A

The cuticle, a waxy layer covering the surface of the leaves and stems.

80
Q

How do some pathogens penetrate through the cell wall of a plant?

A

They release enzymes that soften cells walls

81
Q

How do plants defend themselves against herbivores?

A

Using chemical defences like poison or insect repellents

82
Q

Give an example of a chemical defence that a plant uses

A

A type of wild potato releases a substance into the air when attacked by aphids. This is very similar to the alarm substance that aphids release when attacked by a predator so they fly away.

83
Q

Where was aspirin originally produced?

A

From salicylic acid made by many plants

84
Q

Where was the medicine artemisinin which kills protists that cause malaria originally made from?

A

Wormwood plant

85
Q

Where are most of today’s medicines made?

A

In a laboratory using chemical substances

86
Q

What can be done to prevent the making of medicines be contaminated by the air

A

Using an autoclave to sterilise equipment and the growth medium

87
Q

What is an autoclave?

A

A strong heated container

88
Q

Give 5 conditions that are bad for plant growth

A

Too much water, too little water, not enough nutrients in the soil, diseases, pests

89
Q

Give 4 things farmers look out for when looking for symptoms on plants

A

Change in growth, change in colour, blotching of leaves, lesions (areas of damage) on stems or leaves

90
Q

How can plants of a wide area be affected by a disease

A

It can be spread by the wind

91
Q

Give 2 tests that can be carried out when diagnosing a plant disease in a lab

A

Trying to grow a pathogen from damages crop plants

Using technology to identify the presence of genetic material from a pathogen

92
Q

What might farmers also send when testing a plant for diagnosis

A

Soil samples to be tested for nutrients and toxins

A report about other observations

93
Q

What is the most obvious physical barrier on a human?

A

The skin

94
Q

Why can pathogens usually only cross the skin through wounds or when an animal pierces the skin?

A

It is difficult for the pathogen to penetrate the thick skin

95
Q

What is a lysozyme?

A

An enzyme that breaks down the cell walls of some bacteria

96
Q

Why is lysozyme a chemical defence?

A

It reacts with the substances in the pathogen to kill them or make them inactive

97
Q

What additional defence does skin have?

A

It releases substances onto the skins surface to fight infections

98
Q

Where is lysozyme secreted from

A

Tears, saliva, mucus

99
Q

What is mucus?

A

A sticky secretion produced by cells lining openings like mouth and nose. It traps dust

100
Q

What are ciliated cells?

A

Cells that are specialised to move substances such as mucus across their surfaces to carry dust and pathogens away

101
Q

What substance is secreted from the cells lining the stomach and why

A

Hydrochloric acid to reduce the pH of stomach contents to about 2 so pathogens are destroyed.

102
Q

What are STIs?

A

Infections where the pathogens are usually transmitted through sexual activities

103
Q

Give 2 examples of STIs

A

Chlamydia, HIV virus

104
Q

How can STIs be prevented

A

Using condoms

105
Q

How can STIs be spread (3)

A

Mother to unborn baby
Sharing needles with an infected person
Sexual activity with an infected person

106
Q

How can people with STIs be aware that they have it

A

Through screening

107
Q

What are antigens?

A

Molecules found on the outer surfaces of all cells and virus particles

108
Q

What does the immune system use antigens for

A

Identifying if something inside the bod is a cell of the body or has come from outside

109
Q

What cells have antibodies on their surfaces

A

Lymphocytes (white blood cells)

110
Q

How does the immune system attack pathogens?

A

A lymphocyte with an antibody that fits with the antigen is activated.
This causes the lymphocyte to rapidly divide to produce identical clones.
Some lymphocyte secrete large amounts of antibodies which stick to the antigens and destroy the pathogen.
Other lymphocytes remain in the blood ready to respond if the same antigen appears

111
Q

What are memory lymphocytes?

A

Lymphocytes that remain in the blood.

112
Q

Why is the secondary response of the immune system faster

A

There are already memory lymphocytes that can attack the pathogen faster

113
Q

When are you immune to a pathogen

A

When your immune system kills the pathogen before you get ill

114
Q

How do vaccines make you immune to a pathogen?

A

It contains weakened or inactive pathogens that include the antigens. This is injected into the body which causes a little reaction so that memory lymphocytes are made.

115
Q

Why might a child not be given a vaccine?

A

If there is a known risk that a child might react badly

116
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When a large amount of people are immune making the rest also immune as there won’t be many people with the disease.

117
Q

How did Alexander Fleming discover penicillin?

A

An agar plate that wasn’t washed was left for weeks. When her returned, some of the bacteria had been killed

118
Q

What is an antibiotic?

A

A substance that either kills or inhibits their cell processes

119
Q

Why are antibiotics useful for attaching bacterial infections that the immune system cannot control?

A

They do not target human cells

120
Q

Why do different types of bacteria respond differently to a particular antibiotic!

A

They have different structures

121
Q

Why do new medicines need to be developed to control the same bacteria?

A

The bacteria might have become resistant to it

122
Q

What are the different stages of developing a new medicine?

A

Laboratory
Pre-clinical
Phase 1 clinical trial
Phase 2 clinical trial

123
Q

What happens in the laboratory ?

A

A possible medicine is tested on cells or tissues in a lab. This is to check if the medicine will harm us and have the right effect

124
Q

What happens in the preclinical trial?

A

The new medicine is tested on animals to see if it effects the whole body. To check side effects

125
Q

What happens in phase 1 clinical trial?

A

It is tested on a small number of healthy people to check if it is safe and any side effects

126
Q

What happens in phase 3 clinical trial?

A

The medicine is tested on people who have the disease to work out the dose and to check for any more side effects

127
Q

What are bacteria static antibiotics?

A

Antibiotics that stop the pathogen

128
Q

What are bactericidal antibiotics?

A

Antibiotics that kill the pathogen

129
Q

How to bacteria static antibiotics work

A

They interfere with the multiplication process (stop translation so DNA is not replicated)

130
Q

How do bactericidal antibiotics work?

A

They stop the cell walls from being made

131
Q

Why are broad spectrum antibiotics not as good for humans?t

A

They target any bacteria - good or bad

Make you feel ill

132
Q

Why don’t antibiotics kill viruses

A

They don’t have cell walls

They are inside a host cell

133
Q

What are antiseptics?

A

Substances used to kill microorganisms on the surface of the body or equipment

134
Q

Explain stage 1 of the core practical - Antibiotics

A

Use aseptic technique to pour an agar plate.
Open the bottle of bacterial culture and place the neck in a Bunsen flame.
Insert a sterile pipette a draw up a very small amount.
Gently add a couple drops into the Petri dish onto the agar.
Disinfect the pipette
Using a sterile spreader, spread the bacteria culture across the agar.

135
Q

Explain stage 2 of the core practice - Antibiotics

A

Label 4 areas of the dish with the antibiotic you will use
Using a sterile forceps, place a sterile filter paper disk in the ‘control’ section.
Re-sterilise the forceps and place a paper disk with the antibiotic in each section.
Tape the lid

136
Q

Explain stage 3 of the core practice - Antibiotics

A

Measure the diameter of the clear space around each disk and work out the radium to calculate the cross-sectional area.
Draw a graph showing the different cross sections and the different antibiotics

137
Q

How do pregnancy tests work?

A

If a woman is pregnant, they produce a hormone called hGC. The antibodies on the stick have a blue bead attached to them. The antibodies on a pregnancy test stick bind to the hormone when a urine sample is added. The urine continues to move along the strip with the antibodies. At the test strip, there are immobile antibodies which the beaded antibodies bind to causing the blue dye to accumulate.

138
Q

How is the extreme sensitivity of a pregnancy test made?

A

By using antibodies that match the hormone

139
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Identical antibodies that can be made to bind to a specific cell or chemical.

140
Q

Why can monoclonal antibodies not be made in large amounts?

A

Once a lymphocyte begins to produce antibodies, it cannot divide anymore

141
Q

What is a hybridoma cell

A

A cell made by fusing a normal cell with a cancer cell to create a cell with the desired properties

142
Q

What are the stages of making monoclonal antibodies?

A

Take an animal and inject it with an antigen
Extract the lymphocytes that the mouse makes.
Fuse the lymphocytes with a growing tumour cello make a hybridoma cell
These then divide rapidly due to the cancer cell and gives your lots of identical antibodies called monoclonal antibodies.

143
Q

What are platelets?

A

Fragments of blood cells that help to form blood clots but they can kill if they are in the wrong place

144
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be made for diagnosis?

A

The antibodies are made slightly radioactive. When they attach to a cancer cell, the radioactivity can be detected and the location of cancer can be found.

145
Q

Why are monoclonal antibodies better at treating cancer than other drugs

A

They only attach to specific cells which can be made to be cancer cells so healthy cells are not affected. This reduces the amount of drug needed so reducing the risk.

Biology (9 decks)

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