Unit 5 - Ch. 7 Flashcards
Who was the first criminological scholars to observe a link between drugs/alcohol and criminality?
Lombroso
When was the first AA program established?
1935 Akron, Ohio
Our understanding of substance abuse and how it impacts individuals, families, and societies has proliferated exponentially since the first Alcoholics Anonymous program was established
The Oxford dictionary defines a drug as a substance that impacts the body in a…
…physiological sense once ingested. Interestingly however, the Oxford dictionary categorizes drug use as illegal if drugs are consumed for their stimulant effects. (Oxford Dictionary, n.d.). Thus, while drugs can be classified as legal (“licit”) or illegal (“illicit”), they have one feature in common—all drugs impact our mind and body physiologically.
As well, both legal and illegal drugs can be further described as synthetic or natural. While humans manufacture synthetic drugs, natural drugs, are (as you would expect) found in nature (e.g., marijuana). However, sometimes the distinction is not so clear. More often than not, “natural” illegal drugs are laced with other additives that may be synthetic. Lastly, although we may not typically think of alcohol, caffeine, or cigarettes as drugs because of their legal status, they are drugs nonetheless.
The last systematic analysis of the economic costs associated with substance abuse in Canada was published in 2006. According to this study, the cost to arrest, prosecute, and sentence offenders for illicit drug use and trafficking approached….
8.2 Billion dollars in 2002.
In 2013, 2.1 million incidents were reported to police, of which 5% (1 in 20) had as the most serious crime (s) against the…
Controlled Drugs and Substance Act (CDSA) – Cannabis possession accounts for 54% of all police-reported drug offences.
Drug offences increased by ____% since 1991 (2014 statistic)
52
According to Public Safety Canada, what is the number one crime prosecuted in the court system (next to administration of justice offences such as breach of parole)?
Impaired driving.
What were 75% of Canadians accused of homicide have in common?
They were under the influence of alcohol, drugs, or another substance at the time of the offence.
____% of offenders reported using alcohol or drugs on the day of the crime that brough them to federal custody.
Comparatively, ___% of Canadians reported using an illicit drug other than cannabis in the last 2 years (2015)
63%
2%
____% of female offenders within the federal correctional system have been assessed as having some issue with substances, and ____% have been identified as having moderate to severe substance abuse needs (MacDonald, 2014)
77%
55%
Methodology - Researches who study substance abuse/substance abuse and crime links have used…..
…every method possible.
As well, the reasons why someone initially develops a substance abuse problem are sometimes different from….
…different from why they continue to abuse drugs.
Dopamine theory of reward and addictions (Also referred to as the disease model)
The longest-standing theory for why people become addicted to substances (Nutt et al. 2015). It is also strongly endorsed by leading experts in the field such as Nora Volkow, Director of the National Institute on Substance Abuse (NIDA) in the United States.
In sum, the theory argues that drugs stimulate the dopamine neurotransmitter system in the brain, which in turn causes direct pleasurable or euphoric sensations—a “high.” It is also important to note that dopamine is pivotal for motivating and driving goal-directed behaviour (Lewis 2015).
Thus, individuals are motivated to continue using drugs because of the rewarding or positive reinforcing effects that dopamine activation has on the brain. Moreover, this perspective underscores how the brain physically changes in response to repeated drug use—namely in the areas of judgment, decision making, learning, memory, and behaviour control (National Institute on Drug Abuse 2014).
Although the dopamine theory of reward and addictions is firmly grounded in neurochemistry, it also actively integrates some of the most basic tenets of psychology—motivation and positive reinforcement. Thus, other researchers refer to the dopamine theory of reward and addictions as a biopsychological theory of addictions (see DeMatteo, Filone, and Davis 2015). However, Marc Lewis, a former-addict-turned-neuroscientist (also a Canadian), still refers to this model as the disease model.
What are the criticisms of the dopamine theory of addictions?
Nutt et al. (2015)
First, not all drugs actually alter the brain’s dopamine neurotransmitter system. While there is evidence that stimulants, such as cocaine, activate the brain’s dopamine system, there is no clear evidence that cannabis, ketamine, or opiates do so. Further, the evidence appears to be mixed regarding the effects of alcohol and cigarettes on the dopamine system.
Second, Nutt et al. challenge the basic assumption underlying the dopamine theory of addiction—that dopamine release is the key causal mechanism that directly causes drug addiction due to dopamine’s euphoric effects. Alternatively, Nutt et al. point to existing research showing that there may be an alternative pathway: that dopamine release leads to increased impulsivity, which in turn leads to addiction. In fact there is increasing evidence that the various dopamine mechanisms that have historically only been used to explain substance-related addictions may also help explain other disorders characterized by impulsivity such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and pathological gambling
Genetics and Substance abuse -
Evidence from twin and adoption studies have consistently shown that genetics plays at least a moderate (and sometimes a strong) role in explaining substance use.
Kendler (2001) reported that the heritability estimates for sedative, stimulant, cocaine, and opiate use range from 60 to 80 percent. The heritability estimates for alcoholism among males are lower, but still substantial, at 50 to 60 percent (Kendler et al. 1994; Prescott et al. 2005). However, the alcoholism heritability findings among females are mixed. Kendler et al. found evidence for stronger heritability effect among females, while Prescott et al. reported environmental factors to be more important among females.
The genetics research also tells us that there are potentially many more genetically inherited factors that may make someone more susceptible to developing a substance-related addiction. For example, other inherited behavioural, temperamental, and personality traits may either increase the risk for developing an addiction, or reduce the risk for developing an addiction (protective factors).
Quinn and Fromme (2010) reported that traits of alienation, anger, interaction anxiety, and lower self-regulation predicted adolescent drug use.
Also, some research has shown how several genes that control the sensitivity to acute intoxication and alcohol withdrawal are protective against alcoholism (Hinckers et al. 2006; Pihl 2009). Having higher dopamine receptor availability may protect against alcohol abuse among genetically high-risk individuals (Volkow et al. 2006).
The Social Learning or “Choice” model:
According to Lewis (2015), the social learning perspective underscores individual choice. The basic tenet of this perspective is that addiction is a choice. More importantly, it is a rational choice in which individuals opt for short-term rewards in exchange for the long-term consequences of drug abuse.
This model seems to explain why individuals may start and eventfully stop substance abuse, while the disease model explains its maintenance.
The social learning model also emphasizes a number of broader contextual factors such as poverty and social isolation. Importantly, Lewis (2015) has recast the traditional social learning perspective of addictions with a “choice” model. Or, more generously, Lewis equates social learning with choice.
Criticisms about the social learning or “choice” model?
It panders to the earliest perspectives that viewed addicts as indulgent, weak individuals with no will power.
The Self-Medication Model
Lewis argues that this model is rooted in psychology, sociology, and medicine. Essentially this theory argues that individuals start using drugs to cope with stress and related negative outcomes associated with trauma and abuse.
Psychoactive drugs relief anxiety and stop rumination in the short term.
Drugs eventually become the source of the problem rather than solution
In most cases, mood and anxiety problems will occur before the onset of substance abuse, suggesting that individuals self-medicate with drugs/alcohol to temporarily diminish their anxiety.
The self-medication model is also consistent with the fact that so many individuals—men and women alike—suffer from co-occurring addictions and internalizing mental health disorders.
For example, a recent study reported that women participating in methadone maintenance treatment had a substantial number of mental health issues including depression (63 percent), anxiety (62 percent), and panic disorder (32 percent). Many had also experienced physical (81 percent), mental (74 percent), and sexual (67 percent) trauma.
In sum, Lewis explicitly advocates for a new conceptualization of addictions—one that views addictions as a learned behaviour rather than a disease of the mind. Lewis is not arguing against the disease model of addiction, but is advocating for a more integrated perspective that will empower individuals with addictions. This in turn will encourage individuals to believe that they are not powerless against their “disease” and have the power to take control of their lives once again.
A variety of sources support the self-medication theory. However, much of this support comes from research on…
What is the “feminist pathways” perspective on female criminal conduct?
female offenders.
The “feminist pathways” perspective on female criminal conduct posits that a number of girls are pushed out of their homes due to abuse and choose to self-medicate to deal with the anxiety and depression associated with early traumas, which in turn may lead to criminal justice involvement.
One of the prevailing perspectives used to account for why substance abuse leads to crime is that the __________ comes first and _______ follows in order to feed the _______.
Addiction
Crime
Addiction
McMurran’s (2012) theory of the alcohol–violence relationship
The relationship between alcohol consumption and violence depends on a variety of factors related to:
- The person,
- The context,
- The nature of the alcohol consumption, and
- The situation.
First, is the person predisposed toward aggression, irrespective of the amount of alcohol consumed?
Second, what is the degree and speed of intoxication?
Third, what is the context—who is the individual drinking with and where? (about 50 percent of substance abusers use substances in the presence of others).
Lastly, has the individual encountered provocation? (that may lead to violence)
McMurran cautions that despite the clear link between alcohol and crime, the nature of its influence is unclear. Does alcohol cause crime directly through inhibition/cognitive impairment? If so, then substance abuse treatment is important. If, however, alcohol is mediated by another factor such as personality or social cues, then alcohol treatment may not be enough to rehabilitate an offender.
Andrews and Bonta (2010) categorize substance abuse as a _______ risk factor for criminal conduct.
Moderate
This is further supported by meta-analytic evidence illustrating that treating substance abuse reduces criminal recidivism.
Many studies have established that substance abuse is predictive of future crime in both males and females (e.g., Dowden and Brown 2002). However, researchers rarely ask the question, “when does substance use or abuse actually increase the odds that someone will also engage in criminal conduct?” There are two plausible answers to this question that depend on:
1) the nature of the drug and the type of crime we are interested in examining, and
2) how many additional criminal risk factors are present.
There appears to be growing evidence for the hypothesis that whether or not substance use translates into criminal conduct (above and beyond the illegal drug use itself) depends on two factors:
the nature of the drug involve and the type of crime we are interested in predicting.
