Unit 4 Terms Flashcards
Cellular Respiration
the process of metabolizing macromolecules to store energy in the form of ATP. It requires Oxygen and releases Carbon Dioxide.
Respiratory System Components
-Nose and nasal Passages
-Pharynx (upper throat)
-Epiglottis
-Larynx (anterior to esophagus)
-Trachea (branches into 2 bronchi)
-Bronchi (branch into smaller tubes)
-Lungs
-Bronchioles
-Alveoli (air sacs)
-Diaphragm
Nose/nasal passages
-Contain cilia and mucous.
-mucus catches bacteria
-Cilia moves mucous toward pharynx to be swallowed and digested.
Pharynx
is a common passageway for food and air.
Epiglottis
open to allow air into larynx, and guards airways to prevent food from entering.
Larynx
the voice box. contains vocal chords, glottis, that vibrate with expelled air.
Trachea/windpipe
walls are reinforced with c-shaped rings of cartilage that keeps the tube open during breathing. Lined with ciliated mucosa that beat continually in the opposite direction of air flow.
Bronchi
leads into the lungs and contains warm, clean, humidified air.
Lungs
surround by two pleura (membranes) that allow lungs to glide over thoracic wall.
Bronchioles
are the last and smallest branch of bronchi, and are reinforced with cartilage.
Alveoli
are at the end of every bronchioles.
-respiratory membrane (exchange of o2 and co2)
-surrounded by capillaries
-one cell layer thick
-pores connect alveoli (alternate path for air)
Breathing
Pulmonary Ventilation. Air moves in and out of lungs to refresh air in alveoli.
-volume changes lead to pressure changes which lead to the flow of gases to equalize the pressure.
-brain detects rate of breathing by responding to internal stimuli that indicate how much o2 to body needs.
External Respiration
Oxygen diffuses across moist surface of lungs into blood vessels. Carbon dioxide leaves.
Respiratory Gas Transport
-O2 is transported in the blood to tissues from lungs.
-CO2 is transported from tissues to lungs.
Internal Respiration
Tissues take oxygen from blood and release CO2 into blood.
Respiratory Surface
the part of an animal where oxygen diffuses into the animals and Co2 diffuses into the environment.
Inhalation
-diaphragm contracts
-chest cavity expands, which causes lungs to expand.
-Air moves into lungs
Exhalation
passive process
-diaphragm relaxes
-decreases chest cavity which causes lungs to recoil.
-air flows out of lungs
The body transports…
-Oxygen
-Nutrients
-Cell Wastes
-Hormones
-Other
Circulatory System
Closed system meaning blood is contained to vessels.
-Heart
-Blood vessels
-Blood
-Lymphatic System
Heart
Contains 4 chambers, 4 valves, and two systems regulate contractions to move blood, autonomic nervous system and nodal system.
Pericardium
Double walled sac surrounding the heart.
4 Heart Chambers
Blood storage and pumping.
-Two atria superior to two ventricles separated by septums.
-Atria involved in receiving blood from body/lungs
-Ventricles involved in propelling blood out of heart to body/lungs.
4 Heart Valves
Allow the blood to flow in one direction.
-Tricuspid
-Pulmonary
-Mitral (bicuspid)
-Aortic
Nodal System
-Atria contract filling ventricles with blood.
-Ventricles contract pumping blood to body.
Cardiac Cycle
a group of cells in the right atrium controls the contraction of the atrium and sends a signal to the AV node which causes the ventricles to contract when the atria start to relax.
Cardiac or Coronary Circuit
the travel of blood within the heart.
Pulmonary Circuit
path of blood from heart to lungs.
Systematic Circuit
path of blood from the heart to the rest of the body.
Path of Blood
-Blood enters heart through superior and inferior venae cavae into the right atrium.
-Blood is pumping into right ventricle.
-Blood is pumped in pulmonary trunk, which splits into pulmonary arteries to travel to the lungs for oxygenation.
-Returns to the heart through pulmonary veins into the left atrium.
-Blood is pumped into the left ventricle.
-Blood is pumped into aorta to be pumped to the body.
Blood Pressure
is the force of blood exerts against the walls of the blood vessels caused by the pumping of the heart.
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
The events that occur in one complete heartbeat.
-both atria and ventricles contract then relax.
-average 75 beats/min (heart rate)
-contraction of the ventricles
-blood pressure on arteries is high.
-Systole and Diastole cycles
Systole
-atria are relaxed
-tricuspid and mitral valves are closed.
-contraction of the ventricles
-blood pressure on arteries is high.
Diastole
-ventricles are relaxed
-aortic and pulmonary valves are closed.
-contraction of the atria
-blood pressure is low
Electrocardiography
A representation of the hearts electrical activity recorded from electrodes on the body surface.
-A typical ECG contains 3 recognizable waves.
P wave
-Small
-Signals the depolarization of the atria immediately before they contract.
QRS Complex
-Depolarization of ventricles before they contract.
T Wave
-repolarization of ventricles.
Arteries
Carry blood away from heart. Oxygenated except pulmonary. Thick layer of smooth muscle for elasticity. Able to withstand high pressures. Smaller in diameter than veins. Divide smaller and smaller until they become arterioles that lead to capillaries.
Capilleries
Thin-walled single layer of endothelial cells. Location of gas, nutrient, waste exchange. Connects arteries and veins. intertwine among body cells.
Veins
Largest diameter, thin-walled, carry blood towards heart. Valves prevent backflow. Capillaries empty into venules which become veins.
Positron Emission Tomography
-A type of nuclear medicine.
-Involved injecting a radioactive tracer molecule.
-A type of functional or physiological imaging.
-Diagnoses differences in biological activity.
-Measures blood flow, oxygen use, and metabolic rates.
-Can be coloured or black and white. Hot spots are red and orange or black and are areas with higher chemical activity.
Process of PET
-Inject a radioactive isotope. Type of tracer depends on purpose, the tracer decays producing gamma rays that are detected by scanner.
-Computer converts data to image.
-Image is projected to a screen to be read.
Gamma Rays
A type of ionozing radiation.
Echocardiography
A type of ultrasound. Uses high frequency sound waves to produce electronic images. The reflected wave is the echo.M
M-Mode Echo
Line tracing image. used to detecting size of chambers, thickness of walls, or size of heart.
Doppler Echo
measures and assess flow of blood through heart valves and chambers.
2D Echo
Produces real time motion of heart structure.
3D Echo
Same as 2D but with greater depth.
Process of Echocardiography
- A transducer emits sound waves by converting electrical energy from the power source to sound waves.
- Sound waves enter body, creating echos when they reach boundaries.
- Echo’s are received and transmitted back into electrical energy, to computer, then image.
Echocardiography Facts
-Higher frequency-greater resolution-less penetration.
-White areas mean more dense substance.
-This process is non-invasive and doesn’t emit radiation. Can be used for pregnant women.
Blood
the transport medium in the circulatory system. The only fluid tissue in the body.
Plasma
-Clear yellowish fluid. Makes up 45-55% of blood. 90% water but contains dissolved minerals, plasma transport proteins, and antibodies.
-Is the transporter substance.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
-Most numerous of blood cells
-Produced in bone marrow.
-No nucleus or mitochondria.
-Lifespan is 2-4 months.
-Contains red coloured protein, (b/c of iron) called hemoglobin which binds to oxygen to transport it to cells.
Oxygen Saturation
Is monitored by doctors. Below 90% is hypoxia (low) below 80% is compromised immune function.
Thrombocytes (platelets)
-Cell fragments, which float in blood. Not true cells.
-Live 7-11 days.
-Collect and stick to cut blood vessels.
-Release a protein called fibrin responsible for the clot which dries into a scab.
Leukocytes (white blood cells)
-Produced in marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen.
-Important in immune system.
-Move in amoeboid fashion, squeezing through capillary walls and body cells.
-Contains nuclei.
-Less in numbers than RBC unless infection is present.
-Can live for months or years, (immunity).
Lymphocytes
Recognize disease causing organisms and alert body.
Neutrophils
Surround and kill invaders using phagocytosis. Remains of these cells and foreign particles form pus.
Monocytes
Become macrophages, long term clean up crew.
Basophils
Release histamine and an anticoagulant.
Antigen/Antibody Bonding
The plasma membranes of RBC bear genetically determined proteins (antigen).
Antigen
a substance that the body recognizes as foreign and stimulates an immune response against. Ex. proteins, nucleic acids, large carbs, some lipids, pollen grains, and microorganisms.
Antibody
Are found in plasma and bind to antigens.
Transfusion Reaction
-When wrong blood type is introduced.
-Antibodies bind to antigens resulting in clumping of foreign RBCs which can lead to clogging of the blood vessels.
-Binding of antibodies to antigens helps body see the cells as foreign, the body will lyse them, which releases hemoglobin into the blood stream.
-Hemoglobin can’t fit into kidney tubules, resulting in blockages and potential kidney failure.
ABO
Based on the presence of absence of two antigens (A and B) that a person can inherit.
Rh
Based on the presence or absence of Rh antigens.
Human Blood
Generally classified into 4 main groups, A, B, AB, and O. Each can be Rh- or Rh+ creating 8 groups in total.
Determining a Blood Type
Blood is placed in a serum with specific antibodies. If a reaction occurs (clumping) the antigen responsible for that antibody is present.
Blood Donation
RBCs are taken and given to another person. Blood types must be compatible to avoid transfusion reaction.
Pregnancy
When a mother is Rh- and baby is Rh+ baby has exposed mother to +. Treated with an injection of RhoGAM after birth to trick body into forgetting it has been exposed. If not, second child Rh+ will be attacked by the Rh- and could have brain damage or death, (Hemolytic disease).
Disease
an impairment of the normal state of the living body or one of it’s parts that modifies the performance of vital functions.
Pathogenic Disease
A disease caused by a specific pathogen such as bacteria or virus. Ex.E.coli
Deficiency Disease
caused by a lack of essential dietary elements (vitamins/minerals). Treatable.
Ex. Scurvy
Hereditary Disease
Caused by inherent defects. (genetic anomalies) Ex. Sickle Cell Anemia.
Physiological Disease
a disease caused by the failure or malfunction of body parts or organs. Ex. Diabetes.
Illness
synonym of disease, but can refer to patients personal history.
Disorder
Functional abnormality or disturbance. No cure.
Ex. Anxiety.
Medical Condition
Includes all diseases and disorders.
Syndrome
a group of symptoms that occur together and characterize a particular abnormality. Ex. Down Syndrome.
The Integumentary System
-Cutaneous Membrane. Consists of skin, and derivatives. Mainly protective. Insulated and cushions deep body organs, protects body from physical, chemical, and thermal damage as well as UV radiation and bacteria. Regulates heat loss, excretes excess salt/water, synthesises vitamin D, sensory receptors detect pain/pressure, and it can heal itself.
Epidermis
-5 layers.
-Avascular (no blood supply)
-Top layer is dead cells. Inner layers multiply and send cells upward to die (due to lack of blood oxygen) and be shed.
Dermis
-2 layers
Patterns to increase grip (fingerprints). Sweat/oil glands are here. Contains collagen and elastic fibres. Rich in nerve endings.
Hypodermis
Subcutaneous, below the dermis. Contains fat storage, nutrients, anchors skin to underlying organs, and acts as a shock absorber/temperature regulator.
The Lymphatic System
Includes lymphatic vessels and lymphoid tissues and organs.
Lymphatic Vessels
Form a drainage system that picks up excess interstitial fluid lost from blood during nutrient gas exchange and returns it to the blood.
-Clear fluid called Lymph
-One way system
-Large enough that proteins, cell debris, bacteria, and viruses can enter.
Lymph Nodes
Removes foreign material such as bacteria, viruses, and tumor cells from lymphatic system and produces lymphocytes/
-Contains macrophages which come from monocytes.
Spleen
Filters blood of foreign particles, makes lymphocytes, and destroys worn out RBCs.
Tonsils
traps and removes and foreign particles that enter the throat.
Thymus
Most active in youth, functions in the programming of certain lymphocytes.
Peyer’s Patch
In the small intestine. Captures and destroys bacteria from intestines.
Appendix
Off the large intestine. Captures and destroys bacteria from the intestines.
Pathogen
A bacterial cell, viral cell, or other type of micro-organism that can cause disease.
The Immune System
A functional system meaning it’s many systems working together.
Innate Defenses (non-specific)`
Not aimed at a specific pathogen, always ready to defend.
-No memory
First line of Defense
Surface membrane barriers.
-Skin (acid secretions)
-Mucous membranes
-Stomach lining
Second line of Defense
Natural Killer Cells. Unique group of lymphocytes that can lyse and kill cancer cells, virus infected body cells, and other non-specific targets.
Inflammatory Response. Injured cells release inflammatory chemicals (histamine and kinins) that dilate blood vessels causing them to become leaky (edema), activate pain receptors, and attract neutrophils and monocytes. Causes redness, swelling, and pain.
Phagocytes are present in nearly every body organ (neutrophils and macrophages).
Antimicrobial proteins attack microbes direct or inhibit their ability to reproduce.
Fever, abnormally high body temp, increases metabolic rate and causes Fe and Zn to be hidden by liver.
Adaptive Defenses (specific immunity)
Aimed at a specific pathogen; must have been previously exposed. Lymphatic system and blood vessels are intimately involved. Results in high specific resistance to disease (immunity). Has memory. Is not restricted to infection site. a.k.a third line of defence.
Bacteria
-Prokaryotic cells. Reproduce by binary fission. Contain plasma membrane and sometimes a cell wall. Very primitive cells with their own metabolic processes. Living, they exist outside of a host.
Virus
A small infectious agent that replicates inside the living cell of an organism. Consists of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid. Have no cell structure or metabolism. Create copies through self-assembly. Can’t exist without a host. Antibiotics don’t work.
Adaptive Defenses (the immune response)
Recognizes foreign antigens and acts to destroy them. Failure can result in the most devastating disease. Subcategory is antibody meditated response.
Dependent on Lymphocytes
-Made in red bone marrow
-Mature
-Migrate to lymph nodes and spleen
T-Cells
mature in thymus and are non-antibody producing.
B-Cells
mature in bone marrow and produce anitbodies.
Dependent on Antigen Presenting Cells
-Engulf and process antigens
-Present antigens to the cells that deal with antigens.
-Confined to lymph organs
-Types include macrophages and dendritic cells.
Antibody Mediated Response
T-cells encounter a processed antigen and bind to B-cells to activate them;due to the binding of the antigen to the B-cell surface receptors.
Takes about 10 days to create enough antibodies to fight the antigen. This is because B-cells divide, clonal selection. Produces lots of specific antibodies (plasma cells). Long lived memory cells;stored in the spleen so next time it doesn’t take ten days.
Complement Fixation
Antibody binds to antigen to make it more susceptible to phagocytes.
Neutralization
Antibody binds to bacterial exotoxins or viruses that can cause cell injury which blocks harmful affects.
Agglutination
Clumping of foreign particles into large masses, making them immobile and easier for phagocytes to destroy.
Attenuated Vaccines
Live vaccines, whole cell bacteria or viruses that have been weakened so that they can’t cause harm to the body.
Inactivated Vaccines
Pathogens that have been killed or inactivated leaving them unable to replicate.
Subunit Vaccines
vaccines that contain only the necessary parts of the pathogen that trigger the immune response.
Toxoid Vaccines
Use weakened versions of toxins called toxoids instead of antigens to attack the secreted toxin instead of the bacteria itself.
Combination Vaccines
Vaccines that contain the antibodies to prevent more than one disease.
Recombinant Vaccines
When a small piece of DNA is taken from the virus and given to a yeast or bacterial cell.
