Unit 4 Notes Flashcards
1
Q
What are the global commons?
A
Area of the oceans that are classified by UNCLOS as high seas.
2
Q
Why may global commons create management challenges?
A
Because of overlapping EEZ’s, causing potential conflict. They’re also large areas, which makes it hard to enforce rules. They’re not bound by one nation’s laws.
3
Q
Why are whales hunted?
A
Whale fat is usually used as fuel and lubricating oil, the perfume industry uses the whale ambergris, and modelling business produces corset with whalebones. Restaurant industry uses whale meat.
4
Q
How is whaling managed?
A
The invention of steam ships led to a rapid expansion of the practice in the 20th century. Many whales were nearly hunted to extinction.
5
Q
What is the effect of whaling on whale populations?
A
The populations of all types of whales have decreased since whaling began. The population of the Antarctic blue whale has decreased by over 10x.
6
Q
What has happened to whaling populations post 20th century?
A
Antarctic Blue Whale - -2300. Fin Whale - -38000. Southern right whale - -7500. Sei Whale - -11000. Humpback Whale - -42000.
7
Q
What is the whale industry regulated by?
A
The international whaling commission.
8
Q
What did the IWC do in 1986?
A
Issued an indefinite ban on commercial whale hunting.
9
Q
What did the IWC do in 1994?
A
Established Southern Ocean whale sanctuary, covering 50 million sq. km. This area has a complete ban on whaling with the aim of allowing whale populations to recover to some extent.
10
Q
What are the limitations to the IWC commercial whaling ban?
A
Indigenous societies are still permitted for a restricted level of hunting. Japan and Norway has considered hunting due to what the government calls ‘scientific reasons’
11
Q
What happened between 1987 and 1995?
A
The number of whales taken rose from 280 to 320.
12
Q
What happened between 1996 and 2004?
A
The number remained stable at around 420 whales. The number of both types of whales peaked in 2005, with 850 Minke, and 10 fin whales.
13
Q
Which countries have the highest number of whales hunted?
A
Japan - 1004. Norway - 536. Alaska - 323. Greenland - 168. Russia - 132.
14
Q
Why does Japan hunt whales?
A
Because of cultural tradition, and domestic demand for whales.
15
Q
What did Japan do in 2018?
A
Withdrew from the IWC in 2018, recommencing commercial whaling, carrying out commercial whaling in territorial waters, not in open seas.
16
Q
Why did the Japanese government take this decision?
A
To keep themselves in power, as there are small towns whose economies depend on whaling, who are politically important.
17
Q
What can Japan still do?
A
Go for other species outside of international treaties.
18
Q
What are the advantages of whaling?
A
Employment/economy. Scientific research. Indigenous people rely on them.
19
Q
What are the disadvantages of whaling?
A
Risk of extinction, Protest, difficult to regulate, biological pump.
20
Q
Why is there increased pressure to over exploit marine ecosystems?
A
The middle class currently spend $35 trillion per year globally, they will spend $64 trillion by 2030. As living standards rise, people demand more fish and other protein in their diets.
21
Q
What is happening to the middle class worldwide?
A
It’s growing - 160 million people per year are being added to the global middle class. Less small scale fishermen, more big fishing companies.
22
Q
What is overfishing?
A
Fish stocks being reduced to levels where populations are unable to sustain themselves.
23
Q
How much fish does each person eat per year on average?
A
19.2kg, twice as much as the average 50 years ago.
24
Q
How many tonnes of fish were caught worldwide in 2013?
A
93 million tonnes.
25
For how many people is fish the main source of protein?
1.2 Billion people.
26
How much have stocks of large fish fallen?
By 90%.
27
What has happened to the rate at which we're catching fish?
It outweighs how fast they can reproduce.
28
What % of marine creatures are killed and thrown back into the ocean?
80-90%.
29
What has happened to the % of high seas fished in per year?
It has grown from 1% in 1950, to 63% in 2006.
30
What is the case study for overfishing?
Canadian Newfoundland industry 1992.
31
What was the reason for industry collapse in newfoundland?
Overfishing due to advances in fishing technology. Mismanagement - economic dependency due to changing ocean conditions.
32
What action was taken to protect cod species?
Cod moratorium - An indefinite ban on northern cod fishing off the coast of newfoundland. It was enacted due to the decline of cod stocks.
33
How were fishermen compensated as a result of the moratorium?
NCARP - Short term compensation, providing income support, helping workers transition, focusing on retraining, relocation and income support.
34
What were the socio economic impacts of the cod moratorium?
30,000 job losses, increased poverty and economic instability, loss of cultural heritage, shift to other industries.
35
What is the future of cod fishing in newfoundland?
In 2021, the Northern cod stock was still at a critically low level, 3% of its' historical size. 2022 - remains at a low level with some recovery in certain age classes of cod.
36
Why is sustainable development of fish important?
Oceans, seas and coastal areas are critical to sustainable development. Over three billion people depend on marine and coastal resources for their livelihoods. Oceans are crucial for global food security and human health.
37
What did the 1995 UN fish stock agreement set out?
International principles for conservation and management of fish stocks. Sets out that states should co-operate to ensure conservation of fish stocks within and beyond the EEZ. Effective management and conservation of high seas resources by establishing minimum international standards.
38
What is the 2023 UN high seas treaty?
Was signed to increase protection of oceans to include international waters which cover over 213 of the world's ocean area.
39
What privileges does the protected area now have?
Establishes a framework for designation of MPA's in the high seas - Areas with high biodiversity, ecologically or biologically significant areas.
40
How does the treaty help tackle overfishing?
Creates marine protected areas, helps fish populations recover, maintain biodiversity. Mandates the adoption of measures to manage, and conserve marine resources effectively.
41
How does the treaty help reduce marine pollution?
Regulates marine activities - requires environmental impact assessments including shipping, fishing and resource extraction. Monitors marine ecosystems, reports pollution levels. Encourages international co-operation.
42
What is an example of a regional treaty to solve overfishing?
EU CFP.
43
What does the CFP do?
Sets quotas for which member states are allowed to catch for each type of fish. The CFP was creates to manage fish stocks for the EU as a whole.
44
Why has the CFP been criticised?
By farmers, as they say it threatens their livelihoods.
45
What is a fishing quota?
Catch limits set for most commercial fish stocks. TAC's are set based on scientific assessments of the state of fish stocks.
46
Why are fishing quotas criticised?
Failed to prevent overfishing - quotas are based on outdated data, leading to depletion of fish stocks. It favours larger industrial fishing fleets, at the expense of small fishermen. Destruction of marine habitats and bycatch argue that the policy doesn't do enough to protect vulnerable ecosystems.
47
What are some countries creating to protect marine resources?
Marine reserves - which restrict the level of fishing which take place.
48
How have MPA's increased since 1993?
Increased by more than 15x.
49
What is the difference between land and ocean under marine reserves?
The land has double the amount of protection that oceans have under marine resources. There are only 1.2% of ABNJ's which are protected, compared to 16.8% of EEZ's.
50
What is the case study of marine protected areas?
Tristan de Cunha.
51
What are the facts about Tristan de Cunha?
It's the world's remotest community, 250 inhabitants. An area 3x the size of the UK was designated marine protection zone. It created the 4th largest MPZ, meaning all fishing will be banned from 90% of island waters.
52
Why did the community want the protected area status?
Protect biodiversity - fish, seabirds and other marine mammals. Sustainable fisheries - ensures local fisheries can thrive. Cultural heritage - marine environment is imported to local culture. Tourism development.
53
What is the case study for a NTZ?
Lamlash bay, Scotland.
54
Why was it necessary to establish Lamlash bay as a protected area?
Protect biodiversity, restore ecosystems, create sustainable fisheries, involve community, educate land research.
55
What was the local group formed to protect the area?
Lamlash bay marine conservation group.
56
When did the protected status begin?
Established in 2012 - Scotland's first national nature reserve. Covers approximately 1.5 sq. km. No take zone.
57
What are the effects of the NTZ on biodiversity?
Increase in the abundance and diversity of fish species within the protected area, habitats such as seagrass have recovered and thrived.
58
How could this be used in other locations?
Can lead to increased migration of fish into surrounding areas, benefitting local fishermen. Allows fish populations to rebound. Protects critical habitats. Helps maintain balanced ecosystems.
59
Where has the largest rise of aquaculture occurred?
In fish, which has grown from less than 0.5 million tonnes, to around 40 million tonnes of fish being produced in 2010.
60
How much of global aquaculture production is made up of aquatic plants?
Nearly 20 million tonnes.
61
How much has aquaculture production risen by?
Risen from 1 million tonnes to around 75 million tonnes, whereas wild capture has risen from 20 million tonnes of wild capture to 80 million tonnes.
62
What are the issues of sustainability from aquaculture?
Overuse of resources, water quality, habitat destruction, disease and parasites, genetic pollution, conflicts over land and water.
63
What are the main causes of oil spills?
Oil well leaks, oil tanker accidents.
64
What was the Exon Valdez accident caused by?
Inadequate safety protocol.
65
How many gallons of oil were spilled?
11 million gallons of crude oil.
66
How many animals were killed?
225,000 seabirds, 2800 sea otters, 300 seals, 250 eagles.
67
How many miles of coastline were hit by the oil spill?
1300 miles,
68
How much damage was done?
$300 million, caused harm to over 32,000 people.
69
What are the strategies used to manage marine oil spills?
Booms, skimmers, dispersants, degradation, bioremediation.
70
What are booms?
Floating barriers which are on the surface of water, with a skirt of material to catch oil.
71
What do skimmers do?
Skim the surface of water to remove oil.
72
What is degradation?
Uses naturally occurring micro organisms to break down oil.
73
What is bioremediation?
Considering environment in long term clean up.
74
What are the facts about plastic pollution?
Plastic constitutes 90% of all rubbish floating in the oceans, the UN environment programme estimates that for every square mile of ocean, there are 46,000 pieces of floating plastic.
75
How much has global plastic production risen by since 1950?
Risen from 0 tonnes to 381 million tonnes in 2015. Production fell slightly after the 2008 financial crisis.
76
Why has plastic production risen globally?
Increased demand for single use products, living standards increasing, industrialisation in developing countries, lightweight.
77
How does plastic get into oceans?
Litter - plastic bottles. Down the plughole - microplastics such as toothpaste. Landfill - plastic in open dumps can end up in the sea.
78
What is mismanaged plastic waste?
Plastic that is either littered or inadequately disposed, where it isn't formally managed, includes disposal in dumps or landfill.
79
Which countries have the most plastic waste?
India - 12.99 Million tonnes. China - 12.27 Million tonnes. Philippines - 4.03 Million tonnes. Brazil - 3.3 Million tonnes.
80
Where does most of the UK's waste go to?
China and Turkey.
81
What is a gyre?
A large system of circulating ocean currents formed by global wind patterns.
82
What do gyres cause?
Garbage patches to form, which cause boundary currents and weaker circular currents.
83
Which effect keeps gyres moving?
The Coriolis effect.
84
What are the issues of garbage patches?
Challenging to clean, risks to marine life and ecosystems.
85
What are microplastics?
Tiny plastic particles, measuring less than 5mm. They're harmful to ecosystems and human health. Environmental persistence, bioaccumulation in food chains, health risks.
86
What are the issues for marine species of plastic?
Ingestion of plastic - mistaken as food, blockage and malnutrition. Chemicals ingested, microplastics ingested - human health risks.
87
How can Ocean plastic pollution be managed globally?
UNCLOS article 194. Requires states to prevent reduce, and control pollution of the marine environment from any source.
88
How much plastic entered the world's oceans in 2021?
More than 17 million metric tons of plastic, making up 85% of marine litter.
89
What do current projections say about marine pollution?
Current levels are expected to double by 2040.
90
Why is it difficult to enforce article 194?
Nations have national sovereignty, each country has different zones. No direct enforcement body, difficult to monitor. Lack of accountability.
91
How is ocean plastic pollution being managed globally?
2018 - European commission proposed new rules to target 10 single use plastic products, most often found on Europe's beaches and seas.
92
How is Ocean plastic pollution being managed in the UK?
Ban on plastic straws and stirrers, ban on cotton buds, ban on single use plastics, plastic bag charge. Scotland - Deposit return scheme. Plastic packaging tax - more refill stations.
93
Which actions are being taken on an individual scale to reduce marine pollution?
Schools banning plastic cups and straws, organised beach cleans, recycling drives. Families switching to reusable plastic bags/water bottles. Major supermarkets using less plastic.
94
What is Europhication?
When a body of water becomes overly enriched with nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which causes the growth of algae on the surface.
95
What is the source of nutrients entering the ocean?
Nutrients get into lakes and oceans, feed algae, algae grows, blocks sunlight.
96
How is the marine ecosystem affected by Eutrophication?
Bacteria digests dead plants, using up oxygen, giving off carbon dioxide. Causes excessive algae growth, causes loss of biodiversity. Fish die as a result of a lack of oxygen.
97
Which factors result in high levels of Ocean Eutrophication?
Agricultural runoff, animal waste, impervious surfaces like roads, increase runoff, picking up nutrients, untreated wastewater, mining can release nutrients.
98
What is the size of the gulf of Mexico dead zone?
6334 Sq. Miles.
99
Where does pollution in the gulf of Mexico dead zone come from?
Fertilisers and manure, increasing output. Excess agricultural output of crops. Excess agricultural output of their crops. Excess agricultural nutrient pollution, combined with urban runoff.
100
How can the impacts of pollution in the dead zone be reduced?
Technology removing nutrients from waste water. Practices on land to limit nutrients entering waterways.
101
What is a UNESCO marine heritage site?
Sites recognised for their unique marine biodiversity. 10% of all protected marine areas are now marine heritage sites.
102
What are the facts about the Belize barrier reef?
Largest reef in the Northern hemisphere. 300 km in length, 400 fish species, 70 coral species.
103
What is the economic importance of the Belize barrier reef?
Second largest coral reef system in the world after the great barrier reef in Australia, top tourist destination in Belize. Scuba diving and snorkelling attracts almost half of its' visitors.
104
How many visitors does the Belize barrier reef have per year?
260,000.
105
How many Belizeans are dependent on the reef?
200,000.
106
What are the threats to the reef?
Overfishing, tourist damage, mangrove destruction, offshore oil extraction.
107
What are the ways of managing threats to the reef?
Monitoring, Fishing Quotas, Education.
108
How can monitoring manage threats to the reef?
For reef health, commercial species populations, seagrass and mangrove productivity.
109
How can fishing quotas manage threats to the Belize barrier reef?
As well as enforcing fisheries law and regulation across the country.
110
How can fishing help manage threats to the Belize barrier reef?
They have direct impacts on the resources, on a daily basis.
111
How is tourism being managed in the Belize barrier reef?
Sustainable tourism programme, zoning the country in terms of tourist development, sensitive coastal cases where restrictive regulations over development.
112
What happened to Belize in 2015?
Belize put an oil moratorium across Belize offshore waters, to reduce the risk of pollution.
113
What happened to Belize in 2018?
UNESCO removed the in danger status from Belize barrier reef - a reflection of the reduced threats, and successful management strategies.
114
Which threats still exist for the barrier reef?
Climate change and ocean warming, coral bleaching, increased storm intensity, ocean acidification, reduced calcification, overfishing.
115
How are the threats facing the Belize barrier reef linked to human activity?
Tourism - a cause of human activity and pollution. Burning fossil fuels leads to climate change. Ocean currents - also leads to climate change, affecting the reef.
