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Bio 273 > Unit 4; Cardiovascular System (Part 2) > Flashcards

Unit 4; Cardiovascular System (Part 2) Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 components of cardiac regulation

A
  1. cardiac output
  2. factors influencing heart rate
  3. factors influencing stroke volume
  4. factors affecting venous return
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2
Q

What is the equation for cardiac output

A

heart rate x stroke volume

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3
Q

Stroke volume = _______ - _______

A

Stroke volume = (EDV - ESV)
*big number minus small number

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4
Q

CO = 72 beats/min x 70 mL/beat
what is the cardiac output

*In-class knowledge testing question

A

5040 mL/min (approx. 5L per min)

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5
Q

What is meant by cardiac output

A

the amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute

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6
Q

What 3 factors influence heart rate

A
  1. parasympathetic stimulation: decreases heart rate
    - via vagus nerve; acetylcholine
  2. sympathetic stimulation: increases heart rate
    - via great cardiac nerve; norepinephrine
  3. plasma epinephrine (from the adrenal medulla): increases heart rate
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7
Q

What 4 factors influence stroke volume

A
  1. parasympathetic stimulation; decreases contractility
  2. sympathetic stimulation; increases contractility
  3. plasma epinephrine; increases contractility
  4. increased end-diastolic volume; increases stroke volume
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8
Q

What 4 factors influence venous return

A
  1. total blood volume; more blood means more can be loaded into ventricles
  2. sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerves; constrict blood vessels pushes blood towards heart
  3. skeletal muscle pump; muscle contractions push blood towards the heart
  4. respiratory pump; creates low pressure in thorax and high pressure in abdomen
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9
Q

What is the physical structure of blood vessels

A

hollow tubes made up of;
lumen: central cavity
wall: made of layers

(review figure 4.9*)

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10
Q

Where does the blood flow in the blood vessel

A

the lumen (central cavity)

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11
Q

What are the components of the blood vessel wall

A

inner lining (endothelial cells make up endothelium)
elastic connective muscle
vascular smooth muscle
fibrous connective tissue

(refer to figure 4.9*)

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12
Q

What is vasoconstriction

A

narrowing of blood vessel

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13
Q

What is vasodilation

A

expansion (widening) of blood vessel

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14
Q

What are the 5 types of blood vessel

A

artery
arteriole
capillary
venule
vein

(*review figures 15.2 and 15.3)

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15
Q

What is the main characteristic of arteries

A

thick-walled to withstand high pressures

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16
Q

What is the main characteristic of arterioles

A

small arteries

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17
Q

What is the main characteristic of capillaries

A

smallest blood vessel (highest surface area): used for exchange of materials

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18
Q

What is the main characteristic of venules

A

small veins

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19
Q

What is the main characteristic of veins

A

transport blood at low pressure

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20
Q

Why does blood flow

A

because of a pressure gradient between arteries and veins (flow is directly proportional to the pressure gradient)

pressure gradient (delta P)
arteries (P1 - highest)
veins (P2 - lowest)
*therefore P1-P2 = delta P (change in pressure)

(*review figure 14.3)

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21
Q

What is the change in pressure when 100mm Hg moves to 75mm Hg

A

100-75 = 25mm Hg

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22
Q

What is the change in pressure when 100mm Hg moves to 100mm Hg

A

no change in pressure: no pressure gradient

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23
Q

What 4 factors influence blood flow in the vessels of the body

A
  1. myogenic autoregulation (vascular smooth muscle)
    - stretch receptors in the walls of arterioles that cause vasoconstriction when activated
  2. paracrine hormones
    - released from vascular endothelium and tissues
    - causes vasodilation or vasoconstriction
  3. innervation by sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
    - norepinephrine binds to alpha receptors and causes vasoconstriction
    - epinephrine binds to alpha receptors and reinforces vasoconstriction
  4. hormonal signals via circling epinephrine
    - binds to beta2 receptors
    - found ONLY in the vascular smooth muscle of the heart, liver, and skeletal muscle arterioles*
    - causes vasodilation

(*refer to page 79 of course notes and know this)

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24
Q

What does the term “vaso” refer to

A

blood vessels

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25
Q

How does resistance oppose flow

A
  1. pressure increases when volume decreases
  2. pressure is decreased by friction
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26
Q

Explain how pressure increases when volume decreases in the heart

A

heart generates pressure by contracting, and by doing so, increases the pressure (contracting decreases the volume)

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27
Q

Explain how pressure is decreased by friction in the circulatory system

A

friction occurs between blood and the walls of the blood vessels

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28
Q

Friction exerted by a tube usually called…

A

resistance

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29
Q

Blood flows from ______ to ______ pressure

A

high to low

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30
Q

What is resistance determined by

A

length, radius, and viscosity

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31
Q

Of length, radius, and viscosity, change in which is most important under normal physiological conditions

A

radius

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32
Q

L represents

A

length

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33
Q

n represents

A

viscosity

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34
Q

r represents

A

radius

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35
Q

Adjustments are made in which variable

A

r - the radius of the blood vessels

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36
Q

In the human body, which two variables are almost always constant

A

L and n

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37
Q

For fluid in a tube, what is the equation

A

R = 8Ln/πr^4

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38
Q

Since the flow is proportional to the pressure difference and inversely proportional to the resistance, …

A

F is proportional to delta P/R

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39
Q

Arterial blood pressure reflects the driving pressure cause by the _________ ______________

A

heart pumping
- highest in arteries
- lowest at point of return to the heart
- your pulse is increase in pressure caused when ventricles contract and push blood into aorta

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40
Q

What two parts make up blood pressure

A

systolic pressure: the time when heart is contracting (highest arterial pressure)
diastolic pressure: the time when ventricle relaxes (lowest arterial pressure)

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41
Q

What is the estimation of blood pressure determined by

A

sphygmomanometry (use of blood pressure cuff and stethoscope)

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42
Q

What are the steps of sphygmomanometry

A
  1. inflate the cuff to cut off blood flow
  2. cuff is gradually deflated, when pressure in cuff = the systolic pressure, blood will start to flow
  3. turbulent flow results in sound (Krotkoff sound)
  4. cuff pressure is further reduced
  5. eventually all sound will cease because flow is no longer turbulent; diastolic pressure
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43
Q

What does MAP stand for

A

mean arterial pressure

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44
Q

How is mean arterial pressure interpreted

A

since arterial pressure is pulsatile, use a single value to represent driving pressure

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45
Q

What is the MAP equation

A

mean arterial pressure
= diastolic P + 1/3(systolic P - diastolic P)

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46
Q

What factors affect mean arterial pressure

A
  1. cardiac output
  2. changes in blood volume (constant under normal circumstances*)
  3. peripheral resistance
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47
Q

What is peripheral resistance controlled by

A

arterioles (have large surfaces of smooth muscle in their walls - can modify diameter)
- small changes in radius result in large changes in pressure!
- influenced by both local and reflex control systems

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48
Q

What system coordinates regulation of blood pressure

A

central nervous system (CNS) - a homeostatic reflex

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49
Q

BP is monitored through sensory input from ______________________

A

baroreceptors

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50
Q

Carotid artery monitors…

A

blood pressure to brain

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51
Q

Aorta monitors…

A

blood pressure to body

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52
Q

Explain how baroreceptor reflex causes a decrease in blood pressure when too high

A
  1. membrane of baroreceptor stretches
  2. increases firing rate of receptor
  3. action potentials travel to CNS
  4. control center integrates the info
  5. efferent output carried by autonomic neurons
  6. decrease in sympathetic output & increase in parasympathetic output
  7. results in decrease in BP

(*review figure 15.14 and understand these steps)

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53
Q

What causes decreases in sympathetic output and increases in parasympathetic output

A

vasodilation
decrease in force of cardiac contraction and heart rate
decrease in peripheral resistance and cardiac output

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54
Q

What is blood

A

the circulating component of extracellular fluid responsible for carrying substances around the body

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55
Q

What are the 4 components of blood

A

plasma, RBCs, WBCs, and platelets

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56
Q

What is plasma

A

the fluid portion of the blood

57
Q

What is the scientific term for red blood cells

A

erythrocytes

58
Q

What is the shape of RBCs

A

bioconcave

59
Q

Which blood cell type is most abundant in the blood

A

RBCs

60
Q

What important protein do RBCs contain

A

hemoglobin

61
Q

What is a major function of RBCs

A

gas transport (O2 and CO2)

62
Q

What cell components are lacking in human red blood cells

A

nucleus and mitochondria
- rely on glycolysis to produce ATP

63
Q

What is the scientific term for WBCs

A

leukocytes

64
Q

What is the main function of WBCs

A

immune responses

65
Q

What is the section of WBCs called in a centrifuge

A

Buffy coat

66
Q

What are the 5 types of leukocyte

A

lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

67
Q

What are the 3 types of granulocytes

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

68
Q

What are the natural phagocytes in the body

A

macrophages (monocytes) and neutrophils

69
Q

What is another term for platelets

A

thrombocytes

70
Q

What do platelets do

A

blood clotting

71
Q

Where do platelets come from

A

megakaryocytes
- branches of these huge cells pinch off without a nucleus, and become platelets

72
Q

What is hemoglobin needed for

A

RBC production (needed to transport oxygen)

73
Q

Hemoglobin synthesis is a large complex molecule made up of 4 protein chains called

A

globins

74
Q

Each globin subunit is wrapped around an iron containing ________ __________

A

haeme group

75
Q

How is a haeme group iron-containing ?

A

The haeme group C-H-N porphyrin ring has an Fe in the center

76
Q

Since a haeme group contains iron, what dietary nutrient must be consumed in order to maintain hemoglobin synthesis

A

iron

77
Q

What shape is the hemoglobin-oxygen saturation curve

A

S shaped
- steep portion followed by a plateau

78
Q

Do different forms of hemoglobin have different saturation curves?

A

yes

79
Q

Hemoglobin binds reversibly to oxygen, what is an example of this process?

A

hemoglobin scoops oxygen from tissues with high oxygen partial pressure (like lungs) and carries it to areas of lower oxygen pressure (like muscle tissues)

80
Q

What factors effect hemoglobin oxygen binding

A

temperature, pH, etc.

81
Q

Factors that affect hemoglobin-oxygen binding alter the configuration of hemoglobin, which in turn, alters its properties. This is a form of _________ _______________

A

allosteric modification

82
Q

Increase in temperature __________ hemoglobin-oxygen affinity

A

decreases

83
Q

Decrease in temperature ____________ hemoglobin-oxygen affinity

A

increases

84
Q

Increase in blood-oxygen levels, or increases in pH, cause __________ hemoglobin-oxygen affinity

A

decreases

85
Q

The shift in hemoglobin-oxygen saturation due to pH change is due to the ________ effect

A

Bohr

86
Q

What is the Bohr affect

A

the change in hemoglobin-oxygen saturation as a result of pH change

87
Q

All hemoglobin-oxygen factors are elevated in the ________ relative to the _______

A

increased in tissues relative to the lungs
- see greater changes in temp, saturation, and pH in tissues vs lungs

88
Q

The greater activity in a tissue, the greater the increase in ____,_____, etc.

A

pH and oxygen saturation

89
Q

With greater activity comes greater O2 unloading on tissues, therefore we see a(n) ______________ in O2 release

A

increase

90
Q

What is the process in which blood cells are formed

A

haematopoiesis

91
Q

What does the word haematopoiesis break down into

A

Haima = blood
Poeisis = formation

92
Q

All blood cells are produced in the _________ _________

A

bone marrow

93
Q

All blood cells arise from a single precursor cell called a _____________ ________________ stem cell

A

pluripotent haematopoietic stem cell

94
Q

What are the stages of blood cell development

A

pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells specify into uncommitted stem cells, which specify further into committed progenitor cells (committed to one or 2 specific cell types)

95
Q

What directs the specification of stem cells

A

signalling molecules called cytokines

96
Q

Where does the differentiation and specification of blood cells occur

A

in the bone marrow

97
Q

What are cytokines

A

small peptides/proteins secreted by one cell to send signals to another

98
Q

What are cytokines often called/described as

A

often called “factors”, with a descriptive word following to describe its function
- ie. growth factor, modifying factor, etc.

99
Q

What is the formation of WBCs called

A

leukopoiesis

100
Q

What is leukopoiesis regulated by

A

colony-stimulated factors (CSFs)
- remember this is a type of cytokine

101
Q

Where are CSFs secreted

A

endothelial cells, WBCs, and marrow fibroblasts

102
Q

What do CSFs induce

A

cell division and maturation in stem cells

103
Q

Cytokines released by leukocytes regulate what

A

further leukocyte production
- ie. if you have an infection, more WBCs are produced

104
Q

What is thrombopoeisis

A

the formation of platelets

105
Q

What are the parent cells in thrombopoeisis

A

megakaryocytes

106
Q

What regulates the growth and maturation of megakaryocytes

A

TPO (thrombopoietin)

107
Q

Stem cells undergo ___________ up to 7x without undergoing nuclear or cytoplasmic division

A

mitosis
- this creates a polyploid (megakaryocyte is a polyploid)

108
Q

Polyploid cells have a ________ nucleus

A

lobed

109
Q

In the bone marrow, megakaryocytes extend their outer edges through the ____________ (cells lining the blood vessels) and into the _________________

A

endothelium, bloodstream
- this is where platelets pinch off the polyploid cell

110
Q

Summarize thrombopoiesis

A

megakaryocyte extends cytoplasmic extensions (without nuclear components), from the bone marrow into the neighbouring blood vessels, where platelets are pinched off and enter the bloodstream

111
Q

Although platelets (cytoplasmic components of megakaryocytes) have no nuclear component, what other cell components do they contain

A

mitochondria, smooth ER, and granules filled with clotting proteins/cytokines

112
Q

What is the lifespan of a platelet

A

10 days

113
Q

Are platelets always active?

A

they are always PRESENT in the bloodstream, but only ACTIVE when damage has occurred to the walls of the circulatory system

114
Q

Inactivated platelets are ________ in shape, but activated platelets are ________

A

rounded and smooth = inactive
edges and misshaped = active

115
Q

What is erythropoiesis

A

formation of RBCs

116
Q

What regulates formation of RBCs

A

EPO (erythropoietin)

117
Q

Is EPO a hormone or a cytokine

A

cytokine (often called a hormone but its not)

118
Q

EPO is a ______________ made primarily in the _________

A

glycoprotein, made in the kidneys

119
Q

What regulates EPO synthesis

A

hypoxia (low O2 content)

120
Q

What is haemostasis

A

the process of keeping blood within a damaged area (opposite to a hemorrhage)

121
Q

Why is haemostasis important

A

blood flow cannot be stopped or paused to stop a leak, therefore holes must be plugged under pressure to avoid bleeding out

122
Q

What happens if the “patch” created by haemostasis is too weak

A

it falls off and blood flows

123
Q

What are the 3 steps in haemostasis

A
  1. vascular spasm
  2. platelet plug to temporarily block
  3. blood clot to seal

(review figure shown in lecture recording March 7*)

124
Q

What happens in step 1 of haemostasis (vascular spasm)

A

damaged endothelium releases vasoconstrictive paracrine that decreases blood flow and promotes the formation of a platelet plug
- similar to putting pressure on a bleeding wound

125
Q

What happens in step 2 of haemostasis (formation of a platelet plug)

A
  • damage to the epithelial layer of the blood vessel exposes collagen found in the sub-epithelial layer (usually not exposed to the lumen)
  • exposure of collagen activates platelets (platelets stick to collagen and stick together)
  • when platelets gather on collagen and begin sticking together, it forms a framework for clotting and creates the formation of a platelet plug
126
Q

What happens in step 3 of haemostasis (blood clotting)

A

blood clots as a result of the coagulation cascade

127
Q

Inactivated plasma proteins activated by exposure to either __________________________ or _______________________ released by damaged cells

A
  • factor XII (12) collagen (intrinsic)
  • factor III (3) collagen (extrinsic)
128
Q

When should blood clotting NOT happen

A

when there is not damaged tissue

129
Q

What starts the intrinsic pathway

A

collagen is exposed which activates tissue factor XII

130
Q

What starts the extrinsic pathway

A

tissue damage activated tissue factor III

131
Q

The intrinsic and extrinsic pathways come together to form _______________

A

thrombin
- eventually leads to cross-linked fibrin

132
Q

What is the function of thrombin

A

cleaves fibrinogen (in the blood) into fibrin (important for blood clotting)

133
Q

Thrombin activates factor ______

A

factor XIII (13)

134
Q

What does factor 13 do to fibrin

A
  • crosslinks it into long fibres that intertwine
  • the intertwined fibres reinforce the platelet plug making it a clot
135
Q

What occurs in excessive clotting

A

produces a thrombus; a clot which can BLOCK blood vessels

136
Q

During healing, what happens to the clot

A

as repair progresses, the clot shrinks

137
Q

What enzyme dissolves clots

A

plasmin
(this process is called fibrinolysis)

138
Q

What is fibrinolysis

A

the dissolving of blood clots via enzyme

Bio 273 (8 decks)

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