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Bio 273 > Midterm 1 Review Content > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Review Content Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What does physiology study

A

the NORMAL functioning of the human body

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2
Q

What are the main themes in physiology

A

structure/function
energy
information flow
homeostasis

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3
Q

List the organization levels of the body from smallest to largest

A

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, organism

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4
Q

What type of science is physiology

A

integrative
- most research focuses on the molecular and cellular levels

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5
Q

What are the 4 types of tissues and what are each of their basic functions

A

muscle
- voluntary and involuntary movement as well as strength and structure
connective
- holds parts of the body together and has an extensive ECM
epithelial
- protection of the internal environment, regulates the exchange of materials
neural
- carry information and signals from one part of body to the next (very LITTLE ECM)

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6
Q

What is the function of muscle tissue?

A

voluntary movement and structure

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7
Q

What is the function of neural tissue

A

carry signals

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8
Q

What is the function of the connective tissue

A

structure

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9
Q

What is the function of epithelial tissue

A

inner protection

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10
Q

What tissue type has the most extensive ECM

A

connective

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11
Q

What tissue type has the least ECM

A

neural

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12
Q

What are the 5 types of epithelial tissue

A

exchange
ciliated
transporting
secretory
protective

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13
Q

What type of tissue is the skin?

A

epithelial; more specifically protective

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14
Q

What type of tissue lines the inner female reproductive system (think similar to the tissue that lines airways)

A

epithelial; more specifically ciliated

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15
Q

What are the 5 types of connective tissue

A

loose
dense
adipose
blood
supporting

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16
Q

What is another term for adipose tissue

A

fat

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17
Q

What is the least dense type of connective tissue

A

blood

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18
Q

What is the most dense type of connective tissue

A

supporting (cartilage and bones)

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19
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue

A

skeletal, smooth, and cardiac

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20
Q

What is the function of skeletal muscle

A

voluntary movement

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21
Q

What is the function of smooth muscle

A

involuntary movement
- essential for moving substances in/out of the body

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22
Q

What is the function of cardiac muscle

A

blood flow

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23
Q

What are the two types of neural cells

A

neurons and glial cells

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24
Q

What are neurons

A

neural muscle cells that relay signals

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25
Q

What are glial cells

A

neural muscle cells that support the neurons

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26
Q

What are the 10 major organ systems and what are each of their functions

A

circulatory; bloodflow
respiratory; breathing
digestive; digestion
endocrine; homeostasis
excretory; urination
nervous; cell signalling
reproductive; reproduction
musculoskeletal; movement
integumentary; outer layer (skin)
immune system; disease prevention

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27
Q

What is the “why” in physiology

A

function

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28
Q

What is the “how” in physiology

A

mechanism

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29
Q

What is the result of homeostatic control

A

oscillation around a set point in the body

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30
Q

What does the term acclimatization mean?

A

environmentally induced change and adaptation of the body’s function without genetic change

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31
Q

What are the 4 main types of cell-cell communication

A

gap junctions
contact dependant
short distance
long distance

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32
Q

What are gap junctions

A

protein channels called CONNEXONS allow communication between adjacent cells - these connexons can open and close as needed (controlled flow)

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33
Q

What is contact dependant signalling

A

the interaction between membrane connectivity between two cells (self explanatory)

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34
Q

What is local communication

A

occurs via both paracrine AND autocrine signals

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35
Q

What are autocrine signals

A

chemicals released that act on the same cell that produced them

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36
Q

What are paracrine signals

A

chemicals released that act on neighbouring cells (immediate vicinity)

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37
Q

What is long-distance communication

A

chemical/electrical signalling is used to relay signals across long distances in the body

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38
Q

Why do some cells respond to a given signal while others know not to respond

A

cells have specific receptor proteins that allow for signals to be relayed
- if they do not have matching receptors, the signal is not relayed

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39
Q

What type of protein are protein receptors

A

transmembrane proteins (glycoproteins)

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40
Q

Where can receptor proteins be found

A

MOSTLY plasma membrane, but also in the nucleus and cytoplasm

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41
Q

What is the 4-step process for a receptor to relay a signal

A
  1. signalling molecule (neurotransmitter) binds to receptor
  2. activated receptor interacts with molecules inside the cell to start a signal
  3. signal is carried to the appropriate spot; signal transduction
  4. response occurs
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42
Q

What happens when a signal has reached its target

A

signal transduction: a response is produced

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43
Q

What is the reaction between one or more organs controlled from somewhere else in the body referred to

A

reflex control

*this was a sample quiz question

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44
Q

What type of communication completed reflex signalling

A

long-distance communication

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45
Q

What creates stability

A

the balance between input and output

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46
Q

Can set points be reset?

A

yes

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47
Q

Explain a negative feedback loop

A

a change that opposes or removes a signal to return a cell to its original state
(ie. blood pressure)

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48
Q

Explain a positive feedback loop

A

response sends a signal, which in turn increases the response, and this cycle continues until an external signal shuts off the cycle
(ie. labour)

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49
Q

What is feedforward control

A

when a change is predicted to happen, and the response is kickstarted by anticipation (to prevent change)
(ie. thought of food)

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50
Q

What is circadian rhythm

A

the natural cycle of physical, mental, and behavioural changes throughout a 24-hour cycle

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51
Q

What are the 3 MAIN reasons for having a nervous system

A

receive, integrate, and transduce signals

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52
Q

What is the order by which an external signal is received and carried

A

stimulus, sensor, afferent pathway, integrating center, efferent pathway, target, response

*this is important for understanding neurons

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53
Q

What are the two main parts of the nervous system

A

CNS and PNS

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54
Q

What are the two sub branching parts of the CNS

A

brain and spinal cord

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55
Q

What are the two sub branching parts of the PNS

A

somatic and autonomic

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56
Q

What are the two sub-branches of the autonomic pathway

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic

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57
Q

What are the two types of PNS neurons

A

sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)

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58
Q

What is a synapse

A

the gap between two linking neurons where a chemical signal is transported from one neuron to the next

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59
Q

What are the 5 types of neurons when thinking STRUCTURALLY

A

pseudounipolar
bipolar
anaxonic
multipolar-CNS
multipolar-efferent

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60
Q

What are pseudounipolar neurons

A

axons and dendrites fuse (so they are all connected, unlike most other neurons)

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61
Q

What are bipolar neurons

A

contain one axon and one dendrite (think bi-polar, ‘bi’ meaning 2; one on each end)

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62
Q

What are anaxonic neurons

A

have no true axons, therefore they do not produce an action potential, only regulate electrical changes in adjacent neurons

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63
Q

What are multipolar-CNS neurons

A

most common in CNS - have many dendrites but no long extension of the axon (tons of branches on either end, but no long extension like other neurons)

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64
Q

What are multipolar-efferent neurons

A

the “stereotypical” neuron
- has branching dendrites and a long axon, with axon terminals at the end

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65
Q

What type of neurons are pseudounipolar and bipolar neurons

A

sensory (afferent) neurons

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66
Q

What type of neurons are anaxonic and multipolar-CNS neurons

A

interneurons

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67
Q

What type of neurons are multipolar-efferent neurons

A

motor (efferent) neurons (self explanatory)

68
Q

What are the 3 FUNCTIONAL categories of neuron

A

sensory (afferent), inter, and motor (efferent)

69
Q

Which type of neuron receives a signal and transports it TO the CNS (think directionally how each term makes sense)

A

afferent (sensory) neurons

70
Q

Which type of neuron transmits info WITHIN the CNS (think directionally how each term makes sense)

A

interneurons

71
Q

Which type of neuron takes info FROM the CNS (think directionally how each term makes sense)

A

efferent (motor) neurons

72
Q

Which type of neuron is most abundant in the body

A

interneurons (96% of neurons)

73
Q

What type of cell communication do GLIAL cells use

A

local communication (cannot carry signals over long distances but can communicate with nearby cells)

74
Q

In what two ways do glial cells assist neurons

A
  1. aid in nerve impulse conduction
  2. maintain the microenvironment around neurons
75
Q

What are the two types of PNS glial cells and what are they used for

A

Schwann cells (special cells wrapped around axons); create myelin, which acts as an electrical insulator
Satellite cells (non-myelinating Schwann cells); support the nerve cell bodies (soma)

76
Q

What are the 4 types of glial cell found in the CNS and what are they used for

A

oligodendrocytes; CNS version of Schwann cells
astrocytes; kind of like satellite cells from PNS, but also connect the neurons to blood vessels
microglia; macrophage-like immune cells that remove damaged cells and forge in invaders
ependymal cells; produce cerebral spinal fluid (creates selectively permeable sections of the brain)

77
Q

What are oligodendrocytes

A

CNS version of Schwann cells

78
Q

What are astrocytes

A

connect blood vessels to neurons (and maintain environment)

79
Q

What are microglia cells

A

specialized immune cells (like macrophages) that remove damaged or forge in invaders

80
Q

What are ependymal cells

A

create selective permeability in the brain and produce cerebral spinal fluid

81
Q

Do all living cells have membrane potential?

A

yes!

82
Q

What ion is concentrated INSIDE the cell, and what is the inner-cell’s charge

A

K+ (the inner charge is -ve)

83
Q

What ion(s) is(are) concentrated OUTSIDE the cell, and what is the outer-cell’s charge

A

Na+, Cl-, and Ca2+ (the outer charge is +ve)

84
Q

Are anions or cations more concentrated in the ICF

A

anions (negatively charged)

85
Q

Because of their charge, _________ do not move across the membrane

A

anions

86
Q

Which can move more easily across the membrane; Na+ or K+?

A

K+ : there are more voltage-gated K+ channels so it can move more easily than Na+

87
Q

What does (Eion) mean in terms of membrane potential

A

equilibrium potential of the cell: the membrane potential that EXACTLY opposes the concentration gradient of the cell

88
Q

At equillibrium potential, ___________ & __________ forces act opposingly

A

chemical and electrical

89
Q

In relation to calculating the electrical potential needed to find equilibrium state, what is the specific condition that must be followed

A

can only be done for an INDIVIDUAL ion (must do multiple calculations for whatever varying ions are present)

90
Q

What is the electrical potential for K+

A

-90mV

91
Q

What is the electrical potential for Na+

A

+60mV

92
Q

The Nernst equation looks at the equilibrium potential if the membrane were permeable to only ____ ion

A

one

93
Q

What is typical resting potential

A

-70mv

94
Q

What does the GHK equation predict

A

the membrane permeability of MULTIPLE ions

95
Q

What is the difference between the Nernst equation and the GHK equation

A

Nernst; only one ion considered
GHK; multiple ions considered

96
Q

How is resting membrane potential calculated

A

(concentration gradient x membrane permeability) of each ion added

97
Q

What is depolarization

A

a decrease in membrane potential difference (becomes less negative)

98
Q

What is hyperpolarization

A

an increase in membrane potential difference (becomes more negative)

99
Q

What are graded potentials

A

triggered by the opening/closing of channels, which are started when ions enter the cell from the ECF, but only travel short distances

100
Q

Why are they called “graded” potentials

A

because the strength of the triggering event is proportional to the amplitude of the potential

101
Q

Where do graded potentials occur

A

dendrites or soma

102
Q

Why do graded potentials lose strength quickly

A
  1. leaky channels
  2. cytoplasmic resistance
103
Q

What is the strength of a signal determined by?

A

the number of ions transported into the cell

104
Q

What causes ions to enter the cell?

A

neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the cell membrane, which opens channels

105
Q

What type of signal is used for short distance

A

graded potentials

106
Q

What type of signal is used for long term distance

A

action potentials

107
Q

How do action potentials differ from graded potentials

A
  1. action potentials do not vary in strength/amplitude
  2. action potentials don’t diminish in strength (graded potentials do)
108
Q

Where are action potentials initiated

A

the trigger zone

109
Q

What is the MINIMUM depolarization necessary for action potential called

A

threshold potential

110
Q

What happens if depolarization does not reach the threshold?

A

action potential is not initiated

111
Q

What (other than threshold potential) can initiate action potentials

A

graded potentials

112
Q

How do graded potentials initiate action potentials

A

they gather at the trigger zone until the sum of the potentials reaches threshold, which is when action potential is initiated

113
Q

What are depolarizing graded potentials

A

called “excitatory post synaptic potentials” (EPSP’s); makes membrane potential LESS negative, which brings membrane potential closer to threshold potential

** brings axon closer to firing

114
Q

What are hyper polarizing graded potentials

A

called “inhibitory post synaptic potentials” (IPSP’s); makes membrane potential MORE negative, which pushes membrane potential further from threshold potential

** takes axon further from firing

115
Q

What are the steps of action potential?

*think back to review graph shown in lecture

A
  1. resting potential
  2. depolarizing stimulus (less negative)
  3. membrane depolarizes to the threshold (Na+ and K+ channels begin to open)
  4. rising phase (Na+ causes cell to depolarize)
  5. Na+ channels close and K+ channels open
  6. repolarizing phase (K+ begins to exit)
  7. hyperpolarization phase (overshoots resting potential because K+ channels still open)
  8. K+ channels close
  9. membrane returns to resting state
116
Q

What are the 2 gates on an Na+ voltage-gated channel

A

activation and inactivation (self explanatory)

117
Q

Does it take few or many action potentials to have ions cross the gradient

A

MANY

118
Q

What is the refractory period in hyperpolarization

A

absolute refractory; no action potentials at all can be stimulated
relative refractory; a LARGE stimulus is required to bring forth action potential

119
Q

Why can’t action potential occur during absolute refractory

A

membrane must repolarize for Na+ channel to return to normal state

120
Q

Why does it take such a large stimulus during relative refractory for action potential to occur

A

K+ channels are still open, so more Na+ is needed to repolarize

121
Q

Why is the refractory period important

A

sets the direction of current flow and prevents action potential from flowing backwards

122
Q

Why can’t action potentials move backwards

A

when travelling down the axon, the previous area had just undergone depolarization, therefore is in the refractory period (cannot have action potential in the refractory)

123
Q

Why can action potential move long distance

A

when depolarizing down the axon, the neighbouring area ahead is depolarized with it, creating a chain reaction down the axon

124
Q

What two factors determine the speed at which action potential travels

A
  1. diameter of the axon (greater diameter = greater conduction)
  2. resistance of axon membrane ion leakage out of the cell (insulating the cell reduces ion leakage; speeds conduction)
125
Q

What are nodes of ranvier

A

the unmyelinated spaces in between insulated parts on the axon

126
Q

What is saltatory conduction

A

when action potentials jump from one node of ranvier to the next (faster conduction)

127
Q

What are the 3 components of a synapse

A

presynaptic cell
synaptic cleft
post-synaptic cell

128
Q

which type of synapse makes up the vast majority of synapses

A

chemical synapses

129
Q

What are the two types of synapse

A

electrical and chemical

130
Q

What are the 2 main types of neurotransmitter

A

acetylcholine and amines

131
Q

What are neurons that secret ACh called

A

cholinergic

132
Q

What are the two types of cholinergic receptors

A

nicotinic
muscarinic

133
Q

What are nicotinic receptors

A

receptor-operated channels

134
Q

What are muscarinic receptors

A

coupled G-protein receptors

135
Q

What neurotransmitters fall in the amine category

A

epinephrine, dopamine, and norepinephrine

136
Q

Neurons that secret norepinephrine are called ___________

A

adrenergic

137
Q

What are the two types of adrenergic receptors (though both are G-protein coupled)

A

alpha and beta

138
Q

What are catecholamines

A

amino acid tyrosine is converted into things such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine (neurotransmitters)

139
Q

What happens to neurotransmitters that are not used

A

they diffuse back into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron

140
Q

Which type of neurotransmission is discussed in this course

A

PNS; more specifically the efferent branch

141
Q

The efferent branch of the PNS is divided into two parts; the __________ and the ____________

A

autonomic and somatic divisions

142
Q

What type of muscle tissue involves the somatic branch

A

skeletal

143
Q

What type of muscle tissue involves the autonomic branch

A

smooth and cardiac

144
Q

What are the two branches of the autonomic system

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic

145
Q

What is the sympathetic system involved in

A

“fight or flight”
- exercise, stress, etc.

146
Q

What are the general neuron structures in the autonomic system

A

two-neuron chain, separated by a synapse called the autonomic ganglia (preganglionic and postganglionic)

147
Q

What are the 2 primary transmitter of the autonomic system

A

ACh and norepinephrine

148
Q

What neurotransmitter is released by ALL preganglionic neurons

A

ACh (and by most postganglionic too)

149
Q

What is released by postganglionic sympathetic neurons

A

norepinephrine

150
Q

How do autonomic synapses differ from model synapses

A

autonomic axons end with swollen areas called varicosity (think varicose veins)

** this was a sample quiz question

151
Q

What are the targets of the autonomic pathway

A

innervates and synapse structure

152
Q

What are the two types of receptor

A

adrenergic and cholinergic

153
Q

What do adrenergic receptors respond best to

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine

154
Q

What do cholinergic receptors respond best to

A

ACh, nicotine and muscarine

155
Q

Adrenergic receptors act via __-_________

A

G-proteins

156
Q

a-receptors cause….

A

increase in Ca2+ in cytoplasm

157
Q

b-receptors cause….

A

increase in cAMP production

158
Q

Which type of receptor acts on skeletal muscle

A

nicotinic (cholinergic)

159
Q

What are the two parts of the adrenal gland

A

adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
- adrenal medulla; modified sympathetic ganglion

160
Q

What are the special cells called that secrete epinephrine

A

Chromaffin cells

161
Q

In the somatic division, if a signal is relayed to skeletal muscle tissue, what is the ONLY possible occurrence

A

muscle stimulation (cannot facilitate muscle relaxation)

** this is a practice quiz question

162
Q

What is a neuromuscular junction

A

the synapse between skeletal muscle and a somatic neuron

163
Q

What is the synapse between a somatic neuron and skeletal muscle called

A

a neuromuscular junction

164
Q

In a neuromuscular junction, there is a sheath of _______ _______ at the axon terminals

A

Schwann cells

165
Q

What are the 3 components of the neuromuscular junction

A

presynaptic axon terminal
synaptic cleft
postsynaptic axon membrane of skeletal fiber (modified into a motor end plate containing nicotinic receptors)

166
Q

What is temporal summation

A

when a repeated stimulus of the same intensity is applied to the same region, causing an increase in pain experienced

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