Unit 4 Flashcards
Cross-sectional
a research design where data is collected from a diverse group of individuals at a single point in time, essentially taking a snapshot of a population to examine relationships between variables without following them over time; it’s often used to compare different age groups to study developmental trends.
Longitudinal
a research design where the same group of participants are studied repeatedly over a long period of time, allowing researchers to observe changes and development within individuals as they age or experience different life events; essentially, it tracks the same subjects multiple times to examine how variables might evolve over time.
Lifespan
the entire duration of an individual’s life from birth to death, encompassing all stages of development.
Stability vs. Change
“stability” refers to the tendency for personality traits and behaviors to remain relatively consistent throughout a person’s life, while “change” refers to the potential for those traits and behaviors to modify or evolve over time, signifying a shift in someone’s psychological makeup.
Nature vs. Nurture
Both nature (the genetic and/or biological factors that influence who we are) and nurture (the environmental and/or experiential factors that shape who we are) matter to human development.
For developmental psychology, the big takeaway is how they interact and contribute to development.
Continuous vs. discontinuous (stages)
Continuous:
A gradual process
Discontinuous:
Distinct, defined stages
Stage Theory:
Model that people go through distinct phases of growth and follow a specific order from one stage to the next
Teratogen
Teratogens are agents (like viruses or drugs) that can cause birth defects or developmental abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus when it is exposed to it during pregnancy
The extent of damage depends on factors exposure, timing and genetic susceptibility
Reflex-rooting
an involuntary, innate reflex in infants where they turn their head towards a touch on the cheek, opening their mouth in an attempt to find a source of food, like a mother’s breast, when stimulated on the cheek or corner of the mouth; essentially, it’s a baby’s natural instinct to search for nourishment when touched on the face.
Visual cliff apparatus
a specially designed experimental setup used to test an infant’s depth perception, typically consisting of a transparent glass surface placed over a seemingly steep drop-off, creating the illusion of a cliff, while the infant is safely positioned on a solid surface; this apparatus allows researchers to observe if the infant will crawl over the apparent drop, indicating their ability to perceive depth.
Critical or sensitive period
a specific window of time during development where an organism is particularly receptive to learning a specific skill or behavior,
Adolescent growth spurt
a rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty, a significant physical change experienced by adolescents as a result of hormonal changes, primarily driven by the surge of sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone; it is a key aspect of physical development during adolescence.
Puberty
the stage of physical development where a person reaches sexual maturity, marked by the maturation of primary sexual characteristics (reproductive organs) and the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics (like breast development or facial hair), signifying the beginning of adolescence; essentially, it’s the physical transition from childhood to adulthood through the development of reproductive capabilities.
Primary/secondary sex characteristics
Primary sex characteristics:
Include the gonads (ovaries in females, testes in males).
Directly involved in reproduction.
Present at birth.
Secondary sex characteristics:
Include physical traits like breast development, facial hair, deepened voice, and body hair distribution.
Develop during puberty due to hormonal changes.
Not directly involved in reproduction.
Menarche
the first menstrual period a female experiences, marking the onset of puberty and signifying the biological capability to become pregnant
Spermarche
the first ejaculation a male experiences, marking the onset of sperm production and considered a key milestone in male puberty, essentially the male equivalent of “menarche” (first menstrual period) in females
Menopause
the natural stage in a woman’s life when her menstrual cycle permanently ceases due to declining hormone levels from the ovaries,
Piaget
Piaget thinks that learning is independent
Sensorimotor stage
0-2
Experience the world through our senses
Do NOT have object permanence until 6-8 months
Object permanence
the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be directly perceived or seen, which is a key developmental milestone in early childhood, typically associated with Jean Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of cognitive development; essentially, it means a child knows an object is still there even if it’s hidden from sight.
Conservation
a child’s cognitive ability to understand that a quantity (like mass or volume) remains the same even if its appearance changes,
Reversibility
the cognitive ability to mentally “undo” an action or transformation
Animism
the cognitive developmental concept where a young child believes that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of actions
Egocentrism
the tendency to perceive situations solely from one’s own perspective, essentially believing that others see the world exactly as you do, often characterized by difficulty understanding different viewpoints and focusing primarily on one’s own thoughts and feelings; this concept is primarily associated with Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, particularly in the preoperational stage where young children exhibit this behavior.
Theory of mind
When children’s ability to take another’s perspective starts to develop
Preoperational stage
2-7
Have object permanence
Begin to use language to represent objects and ideas
Egocentric: cannot look at the world through anyone’s but their own
Do NOT understand concepts of conservation
Concrete operational stage
7-11
can demonstrate concept of conservation
Learn to think logically
Formal operational stage
12-adulthood
Abstract reasoning
Manipulate objects in our minds without seeing them
Hypothesis testing
Trial and error
Metacognition
Vygotsky
Vygotsky thinks that learning is acquired through peer interaction
emphasizes the social context of learning, where children acquire knowledge through interactions with others, particularly those with more expertise
Scaffolding- children can step to higher levels of thinking
Zone of proximal development- when children are developmentally ready to learn a new skill (zone b/w what a child can and can’t do; what a child can do with help) i.e. help riding a bike
Scaffolding
children can step to higher levels of thinking
Zone of proximal development
when children are developmentally ready to learn a new skill (zone b/w what a child can and can’t do; what a child can do with help) i.e. help riding a bike
Crystallized intelligence
The aspect of general intelligence, consisting of the knowledge, facts, information and verbal skills acquired throughout life.
Generally increases throughout life
Fluid intelligence
The aspect of general intelligence consisting of the capacity to reason quickly and abstractly.
Typically decreases throughout life
Dementia
a generalized decline in cognitive abilities, including memory, language, and reasoning, severe enough to interfere with daily functioning, caused by various underlying medical conditions; essentially, a significant loss of mental capacity impacting a person’s ability to perform everyday tasks.
Phonemes
The smallest individual sounds in any language
Dog: /d/ /o/ /g/
Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in a language (e.g., root words, prefixes, suffixes)
Dogs: /dog/ /s/
Semantics
The component of language that provides both the meaning of words and how words combine to form meaning
“they saw her duck”
Grammar
the system of rules that govern how words are combined to form meaningful sentences within a language
Syntax
The aspect of grammar that refers to the rules used to put words in the correct order in a sentence
Cooing stage
Cooing is the first step. It involves the soft vowel-like sounds produced by babies when they appear to be happy or content.
Babbling stage
Babbling is next. It involves consonant-like sounds and begins around six months
One-word stage
Next is one word-stage. This is when children communicate using single words that often convey complex ideas. This is typical from 10-18 months
Telegraphic stage
Then telegraphic speech. This involves the first multi-word speech consisting of two or three-word expressions typical from 18-30 months
Overgeneralization
a characteristic error when learning a language in which individuals apply grammatical rules too broadly.
Ecological systems theory (5)
Microsystems
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem
Microsystems
Immediate environment
Mesosystem
Connections between environments
Exosystem
Indirect influences
Macrosystem
culture, economic status
Chronosystem
major life changes over time
Authoritarian (parenting style)
Low in warmth and high in both expectations of maturity and discipline
Communication tends to be parent-to-child but not child-to-parent
Authoritative (parenting style)
High in warmth and immoderate in expectations and discipline
Communication is more likely to be in both directions
Permissive (parenting style)
High in warmth and low in expectations of maturity.
Discipline is rare
Communication happens both ways but is more likely to be child-to-parent
Secure attachment
low anxiety/low avoidance
Securely attached children have trusting relationships with caregivers which often carry over into adulthood
Insecure attachment
a type of emotional bond between a child and caregiver characterized by anxiety, uncertainty, and a lack of trust, often stemming from inconsistent or neglectful caregiving, leading to difficulties in forming healthy relationships later in life; it is the opposite of a secure attachment where a child feels safe and confident with their caregiver.
Avoidant (insecure attachment)
an attachment style where an individual tends to avoid emotional closeness and intimacy with others, often stemming from a fear of rejection, and displaying indifference towards caregivers, showing minimal distress when separated, and actively distancing themselves upon reunion, essentially downplaying their need for emotional connection.
Separation anxiety
a type of anxiety experienced by a child when separated from their primary caregiver, usually a parent, characterized by distress and fear that is often considered a normal developmental phase, but can become a disorder if the anxiety is excessive and inappropriate for the child’s age.
Monkey studies (cloth vs. wire mother)
a famous experiment conducted by Harry Harlow where infant rhesus monkeys were given a choice between two surrogate mothers: one made of wire that provided food, and another covered in soft cloth that did not provide food; the monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, demonstrating that attachment is primarily driven by comfort and contact, not just nourishment.
Researcher: Harry Harlow
Subjects: Infant rhesus monkeys
Stimuli: A wire “mother” with a feeding bottle and a cloth-covered “mother” without food
Finding: Monkeys spent significantly more time with the cloth mother, even though it did not provide food
Significance: This experiment provided crucial evidence for the importance of “contact comfort” in attachment development, highlighting that emotional needs can be as important as physical needs in forming bonds.
Parallel play
a developmental stage where children play alongside each other, using similar toys or activities, but without directly interacting or coordinating their play with one another; essentially, they are playing independently while in close proximity to other children.
Pretend play
a form of symbolic play where children use their imagination to assign roles and situations to objects, actions, or people, essentially acting out make-believe scenarios, often involving the use of substitute objects to represent something else; it’s considered a key part of cognitive development, particularly during the preoperational stage of childhood development
Adolescent egocentrism via imaginary audience/personal fable
a developmental stage where teenagers believe they are constantly being watched and judged by others (“imaginary audience”) and simultaneously believe their experiences and thoughts are completely unique and special, making them feel invulnerable and exempt from normal rules (“personal fable”) - essentially, an exaggerated sense of self-importance and the belief that they are the center of attention.
Emerging adulthood
a transitional period of development typically spanning from the late teens to the mid-20s, where individuals are transitioning from adolescence to full adulthood, characterized by identity exploration, instability in work and relationships, and a sense of “being in-between” stages of life; this concept was primarily defined by psychologist Jeffrey Jensen Arnett.
Attachment theory (ainsworth)
the psychological concept that early interactions between infants and their primary caregivers establish patterns of attachment, which significantly influence future relationships, with the core idea being that children need to develop a secure bond with a caregiver to feel safe and explore their environment confidently; this theory is often studied using the “Strange Situation” experiment to identify different attachment styles like secure, avoidant, and ambivalent.
Key points about Ainsworth’s attachment theory:
Early interactions matter:
The quality of caregiving in infancy shapes a child’s attachment style.
Secure base:
A secure attachment allows a child to use their caregiver as a “secure base” to explore the world from.
Strange Situation Test:
This experimental procedure is used to observe how infants react to separations and reunions with their caregiver, revealing their attachment style.
Attachment styles:
Ainsworth identified different attachment styles including secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant (ambivalent).
8 psychosocial stages (without Erikson name)
“Basic Trust vs. Mistrust,” “Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt,” “Initiative vs. Guilt,” “Industry vs. Inferiority,” “Identity vs. Role Confusion,” “Intimacy vs. Isolation,” “Generativity vs. Stagnation,” and “Integrity vs. Despair”; each representing a critical developmental period where a person must resolve a central conflict to progress psychologically.
Key points about these stages:
Focus on social interactions:
Unlike other developmental theories that focus solely on cognitive development, these stages emphasize the social and emotional aspects of development, highlighting how interactions with caregivers and society shape a person’s personality.
Developmental crisis:
Each stage presents a “crisis” or conflict that the individual must navigate to successfully move on to the next stage.
Positive and negative outcomes:
Successfully resolving a crisis leads to a positive personality trait, while failure can result in a negative trait associated with that stage.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
a range of potentially traumatic events that occur during a child’s early life, including physical or sexual abuse, emotional neglect, witnessing domestic violence, parental substance abuse, or experiencing parental separation or divorce; these experiences can significantly impact a person’s mental and physical health later in life.
Achievement (identity process)
the stage where an individual has actively explored different options and made a firm commitment to a particular identity, signifying a strong sense of self and direction after considering various possibilities; essentially, it’s the final positive outcome of the identity formation process where a person feels confident about their values and beliefs following exploration.
Diffusion (identity process)
a state where an individual has not yet explored different options or made commitments regarding their identity, essentially lacking a clear sense of self and direction, often characterized by a lack of commitment to values or goals; it is considered one of the four identity statuses in James Marcia’s theory of identity development, alongside moratorium, foreclosure, and achievement
Foreclosure (identity process)
a state where an individual commits to an identity without exploring other options, often accepting values and beliefs directly from authority figures like parents or peers, rather than actively searching for their own identity; essentially, making a decision about who they are without considering different possibilities.
Moritorian (identity process)
a stage where an individual is actively exploring different identities and beliefs without making a firm commitment to any one of them, essentially “trying on” different options before settling on a definitive self-concept; it signifies a period of high exploration and low commitment in the identity formation process, usually associated with adolescence.
Identities developed: racial
the sense of self an individual forms based on their perception of their racial group membership, including the beliefs, values, and experiences associated with that group, shaped by social interactions and their understanding of race within their environment; essentially, how someone identifies with their race and the meaning they attribute to it.
Identities developed: gender
the process by which a person forms their sense of their own gender, including whether they identify as male, female, or another gender, which is influenced by both biological factors and social expectations throughout their development; essentially, it’s how someone comes to understand and express their gender identity.
Identities developed: sexual orientation
the process by which an individual forms a sense of their own sexual attraction, meaning who they are romantically and sexually drawn to, which can be towards men, women, both, or neither, and how they identify within that spectrum as part of their overall identity; this development usually occurs as a person matures throughout their life.
Identities developed: religious
the sense of self a person forms based on their religious beliefs, practices, and affiliation with a particular faith community, essentially defining themselves as part of a specific religious group and incorporating those values into their overall identity.
Identities developed: occupational
the part of an individual’s self-concept that is formed based on their chosen career path, including their professional roles, skills, values, and how they perceive themselves within their chosen occupation; essentially, it’s the sense of “who am I” as defined by one’s work life.
Identities developed: familial
the aspects of a person’s identity that are formed through their interactions with their family, including the values, beliefs, behaviors, and roles they adopt or internalize from their parents and siblings, essentially shaping their sense of self within the family dynamic.
Infancy
0-1 years old
Trust vs. mistrust
Can a baby trust the world to fulfill its needs?
The trust or mistrust they develop can carry on with the child for the rest of their lives.
Toddlerhood
1-3 years old
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Toddlers begin to control their bodies (toliet training).
Control temper tantrums
Big word is NO
Can they learn control or will they doubt themselves?
Preschool
3-6 years old
Initiative vs guilt
Word turns from “no” to “why?”
Want to understand the world and ask questions
Is their curiosity encouraged or scolded?
Elementary school
6 years old to puberty
Industry vs inferiority
School begins
We are for the first time evaluated by a formal system and our peers
Do we feel good or bad about our accomplishments?
Can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of our lives… inferiority complex
Adolescence
Teenage years into 20s
Identity vs role confusion
In our teenage years we try out different roles
Who am I?
What group do I fit in with?
If I do not find myself I may develop an identity crisis
Young adulthood
20s-early 40s
Intimacy vs isolation
Have to balance work and relationships
What are my priorities?
Do I have meaningful/romantic relationships?
Middle adulthood
40s-60s
Generativity vs stagnation
Is everything going as planned?
Am I happy with what I created?
Mid-life crisis!
Late adulthood
Late 60s+
Integrity vs despair
Look back on life
Was my life meaningful or do I have regrets?
