Unit 1.6 and 2.1 Flashcards
Sensation
the process by which sensory receptors in the body receive information from the environment, transforming physical stimuli into neural signals that the brain can interpret as sensory experiences like sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell
Threshold
the minimum level of stimulation needed for a person to detect a particular stimulus,
Transduction
the process of converting environmental stimuli (like light, sound, or touch) into neural signals that the brain can interpret
Just Noticeable Difference
the smallest detectable change in a stimulus that a person can reliably perceive 50% of the time
Sensory Adaptation
the process where our senses become less sensitive to a constant stimulus over time
Weber’s Law
the just noticeable difference (JND) between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity
Sensory interaction
the phenomenon where different senses influence each other
Synesthesia
a neurological condition where stimulating one sense automatically triggers a perception in another sense, causing a person to experience both sensations simultaneously
Vision
the sense of sight, where the eye acts as the receptor, detecting light energy within the visible spectrum and converting it into neural impulses that the brain interprets as visual information
Retina
the light-sensitive inner layer of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) which convert light into neural impulses that are then sent to the brain for visual processing
Blind spot
a small area in the retina of the eye where there are no photoreceptor cells, resulting in a lack of visual perception.
Lens
A transparent structure that sits behind the pupil and can adjust its shape to bend light for proper focus
Accommodation
the cognitive process where an individual modifies their existing mental frameworks or schemas to incorporate new information or experiences that don’t fit within their current understanding
Nearsightedness
a visual condition where the focus point of light entering the eye falls in front of the retina
Farsightedness
a visual condition where a person can see distant objects clearly but has difficulty focusing on nearby objects
Rods
a type of photoreceptor cell located in the retina of the eye that are highly sensitive to low light conditions, primarily responsible for peripheral vision and detecting shades of gray rather than color
Light/dark adaptation
“light adaptation” refers to the process of the eye adjusting to a bright environment by decreasing its sensitivity to light, while “dark adaptation” is the opposite process, where the eye becomes more sensitive to light when transitioning to a low-light environment, primarily achieved by the dilation of the pupil and activation of the retina’s rod cells
Color vision
the ability to perceive differences between light composed of different wavelengths
Trichromatic Color Theory
the human eye perceives color by combining signals from three types of cone cells in the retina, each sensitive to a primary color: red, green, and blue
Opponent process color theory
color vision is perceived by processing color information in opposing pairs
Cones
A type of photoreceptor that distinguishes colors and detects fine details in well-lit conditions
Afterimages
a visual sensation that persists after the original stimulus is removed, typically appearing as a complementary color to the original stimulus
Ganglion Cells
the specialized neurons located in the retina of the eye that receive visual information from bipolar cells and transmit it to the brain via the optic nerve
Fova
a small pit located in the center of the retina, containing the highest concentration of cone cells, responsible for sharp, detailed central vision
Dichromatism (color vision deficiency)
a type of color blindness where a person can only perceive two primary colors, instead of the usual three (red, green, and blue), due to a deficiency in one of the cone types in their eyes, causing confusion between certain colors like red and green
Monochromatism (color vision deficiency)
a rare condition where an individual only has one type of cone cell functioning in their eyes, resulting in the perception of colors solely as shades of gray, essentially experiencing total color blindness
Prosopagnosia
a neurological condition where a person is unable to recognize faces, despite having normal vision
Blindsight
a neurological condition where a person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them
Sound waves
mechanical vibrations that travel through a medium like air, creating pressure changes which are interpreted by the brain as sound
Wavelengths (pitch)
the distance between the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next wave
Amplitude (loudness)
the height of a sound wave, essentially measuring its intensity or loudness
Place theory (pitch perception)
the idea that the perception of pitch is determined by the specific location on the basilar membrane within the cochlea where different sound frequencies stimulate hair cells,
Volley theory (hearning)
the idea that when listening to high-frequency sounds, groups of auditory neurons fire in rapid succession, taking turns to “volley” action potentials, allowing the brain to perceive a sound frequency that no single neuron could handle alone
Frequency theory (pitch perception)
a theory of hearing that states the pitch of a sound is determined by the rate at which nerve impulses travel along the auditory nerve
Hearing difficulties
a partial or complete inability to hear sounds adequately, which can be caused by damage or dysfunction in any part of the auditory system, potentially affecting speech development and communication abilities
Conduction deafness
a type of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system of the outer or middle ear
Sensorineural deafness
a type of hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear, specifically the cochlea’s receptor cells or the auditory nerve, which prevents proper transmission of sound signals to the brain
Pheromones
a chemical signal released by an organism that influences the behavior of other members of the same species,
Chemical senses
the senses of taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction)
Olfactory system/bulb
the “olfactory system” refers to the sensory system responsible for the sense of smell, while the “olfactory bulb” is a specific part of the brain that receives and processes signals from olfactory receptors in the nose, essentially allowing us to perceive smells
Gustation
the sense of taste, meaning the ability to perceive flavors through taste receptors located on the tongue
Tastes
gustation, which refers to the sensory perception of flavor detected by taste receptors on the tongue
Oleogustus
the proposed “sixth taste” which specifically describes the sensation of tasting fat
Tongue
the muscular organ in the mouth primarily responsible for the sense of taste
Taste receptors
specialized cells located primarily on the tongue, within taste buds, that detect chemical molecules from food and send signals to the brain
Supertasters
an individual who has a significantly heightened sense of taste, particularly for bitter flavors, due to having a larger number of taste buds compared to the average person, making them experience tastes with greater intensity than most others
Medium tasters
an individual with an average number of taste buds, experiencing taste sensations at a moderate level
Nontasters
an individual who has a significantly reduced ability to perceive taste, particularly bitter flavors, due to a lower density of taste buds on their tongue,
Sensory interaction (smell/taste)
the phenomenon where different senses influence each other
Touch
one of the five basic senses through which we perceive pressure and temperature applied to our skin.
Structures in skin
the various nerve endings and receptors located within the layers of the skin that detect sensations like pressure, temperature, pain, and texture, allowing us to perceive touch
Gate control theory
a psychological model explaining pain perception, suggesting that a “gate” located in the spinal cord can either block or allow pain signals to reach the brain, with non-painful stimuli having the ability to “close the gate” and reduce pain sensation
Phantom limb syndrome
a condition where a person experiences sensations, including pain, in a limb that has been amputated, essentially feeling like the missing limb is still present and functioning, even though it is not physically there
Vestibular sense
the sensory system that provides information about our body’s movement, head position, and spatial orientation
Semicircular canals (cochlea)
a set of three fluid-filled tubes located in the inner ear that are responsible for detecting head rotation and maintaining balance
Kinesthesis
the sense of body movement and position, allowing us to perceive where our body parts are located and how they are moving, even without visual cues
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information received from the environment, allowing us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Top down processing
the cognitive process where our brain uses prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret new sensory information
Bottom up processing
a perceptual process where the brain starts with raw sensory information from the environment, gradually building up a perception without relying on prior knowledge or expectations, essentially analyzing the details of a stimulus before forming a complete understanding of it
Schemas
a cognitive framework or mental structure that helps people organize and interpret information based on their past experiences
Perceptual sets
a predisposition to perceive things in a specific way based on past experiences, expectations, and current context,
Gestalt psychology
a school of thought that emphasizes how humans perceive the whole of an object or scene as more important than its individual parts
Closure
the Gestalt principle where the brain tends to fill in missing information to perceive an incomplete image as a complete whole
Figure/ground
the perceptual process where the brain distinguishes a main object (the “figure”) from its surrounding background (the “ground”)
Proximity
objects positioned close together are perceived as belonging to the same group
Similarity
a Gestalt principle stating that when perceiving visual information, the human mind naturally groups together objects that share similar characteristics like shape, color, or size, perceiving them as a unified whole rather than separate elements
Selective attention
the cognitive process of focusing on a specific stimulus or piece of information while actively ignoring other irrelevant or distracting stimuli
Cocktail party effect
the ability to focus on a specific conversation or auditory stimulus in a noisy environment, like a crowded party, by filtering out other background sounds, demonstrating the brain’s capacity for selective attention
Change blindness
the phenomenon where a person fails to notice a significant change in their visual environment, even when the change is obvious, usually occurring when attention is momentarily diverted or disrupted by a visual interruption like a flicker or eye movement
Inattention blindness
the phenomenon where someone fails to notice a fully visible object or stimulus because their attention is completely focused on something else
Binocular depth cues
visual cues that require the use of both eyes to perceive depth
Retinal disparity
the slight difference in the images received by each eye when viewing an object
Convergence
a binocular cue for depth perception, where the eyes rotate inwards towards each other to focus on a nearby object, signaling to the brain how close the object is
Monocular depth cues
visual cues that allow us to perceive depth and distance using only one eye,
Relative clarity
a monocular depth cue where objects that appear sharp and clear are perceived as closer than hazy or less distinct objects
Relative size
a monocular depth cue where, when comparing two objects assumed to be similar in size, the one that projects a smaller image on the retina is perceived as being farther away
Texture gradient
a monocular depth cue where the apparent texture of a surface becomes progressively finer and less distinct as the surface gets further away from the viewer, providing a visual indication of distance;
Linear perspective
a monocular depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance, creating the perception of depth even on a flat surface, like a painting or photograph
Interposition
a monocular depth cue where one object partially blocks the view of another object, causing the partially blocked object to be perceived as farther away, thus giving the perception of depth
Perceptual constancy
the ability of the brain to perceive familiar objects as having a consistent size, shape, color, and brightness, even when the sensory information received from those objects changes due to factors like distance, lighting, or viewing angle;
Apparent motion/movement
the perception of movement where there is actually no physical movement occurring
Incomplete Retinal Images
