Unit 2.3-2.7 Flashcards
Memory
the mental process of acquiring, storing, and retrieving information, essentially the ability to retain and recall past experiences and knowledge through the stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Semantic memory
a type of long-term memory that stores general knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and the meaning of words, essentially representing a person’s accumulated knowledge about the world, distinct from personal experiences stored in episodic memory; it is considered a form of explicit memory, meaning it can be consciously recalled
Example: Knowing that the capital of France is Paris.
prospective memory
the cognitive ability to remember to perform a planned action or intention at a specific time in the future, essentially meaning “remembering to remember” to do something later on; like remembering to take medication at a certain time or pick up groceries on the way home from work.
working memory
a cognitive system that temporarily holds a limited amount of information readily available for immediate use during mental tasks like reasoning, problem solving, and comprehension, essentially allowing for the manipulation of information while actively processing it
visuospatial sketchpad
a component of working memory responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating visual and spatial information, like the layout of a room, the color of an object, or the mental image of a picture, allowing us to visualize and interact with these images in our minds.
iconic memory
a very brief sensory memory that stores visual information for a fraction of a second after an image is seen, essentially allowing us to perceive a complete visual scene momentarily before it fades away; it’s considered a part of sensory memory, specifically related to sight.
long term memory
the storage system in the brain that holds information for extended periods, potentially a lifetime, including facts, experiences, and skills, allowing for retrieval of memories from a long time ago; essentially, it’s where information is transferred from short-term memory to be stored indefinitely, with seemingly unlimited capacity.
encoding
the initial process of transforming sensory information into a format that can be stored in memory, essentially the act of actively putting new information into memory by processing it and preparing it for storage; it is the first stage of the memory process, where information is converted into neural codes that can be retained by the brain
levels of processing model
Structural level: Processing based on the visual appearance of the information (e.g., remembering a word based on how it looks).
Phonemic level: Processing based on the sound of the information (e.g., remembering a word based on how it sounds).
Semantic level: Processing based on the meaning of the information (e.g., understanding the concept behind a word).
semantic processing
the cognitive process of encoding information based on its meaning, where you understand and relate new information to existing knowledge by focusing on the concept’s deeper meaning rather than just its surface characteristics; it’s considered a type of “deep processing” within memory encoding.
explicit memory
a type of long-term memory that involves the conscious and intentional recollection of factual information or personal experiences, essentially memories that can be verbally declared and retrieved with conscious effort; it is also known as “declarative memory” and includes both semantic (general knowledge) and episodic (personal events) memories
implicit memory
a type of long-term memory where information is unconsciously retained and retrieved, meaning you are not aware of remembering it; it is often associated with automatic skills like riding a bike or typing on a keyboard, where the knowledge is acquired through repeated practice without conscious effort.
long term potential
a neurological process where repeated stimulation of a synapse between neurons leads to a lasting strengthening of that connection, essentially forming the cellular basis for learning and memory formation within the brain; it signifies the ability of synapses to become more efficient at transmitting signals over time, allowing for better recall of information.
central executive
a key component of Baddeley’s working memory model, essentially acting as a control system that directs attention, manages information flow between different parts of working memory, and coordinates cognitive processes like decision-making, planning, and task switching; essentially the “boss” of the working memory system that decides where to allocate cognitive resources.
multi store model
a theory of memory that proposes information flows through three distinct stages: the sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM), with each stage having different capacities and durations for storing information; essentially describing how information is received, temporarily held, and then potentially transferred to long-term storage for later recall.
Three memory stores:
Sensory register: Briefly holds sensory information from all senses, lasting only milliseconds.
Short-term memory (STM): Temporarily stores a limited amount of information for a short period (around 30 seconds).
Long-term memory (LTM): Stores information for extended periods, potentially a lifetime.
How information moves through the model:
Attention: Information from the sensory register that is attended to moves to the STM.
Rehearsal: To transfer information from STM to LTM, it must be actively rehearsed.
Retrieval: When needed, information is retrieved from LTM back into STM for conscious access.
echoic memory
the brief sensory memory that stores auditory information, essentially acting like a temporary “echo” of a sound, allowing us to process and understand spoken words even if they are heard only once; it’s a type of sensory memory specifically related to hearing.
automatic processing
the unconscious encoding of information, where details like time, space, and frequency are processed without deliberate effort, often happening with well-learned or familiar stimuli, essentially “autopilot” cognitive function where information is absorbed without active thinking.
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time, essentially meaning the act of holding information in the brain for later retrieval; it is one of the key stages of memory alongside encoding and retrieval, where information is kept within the memory system after it has been processed and encoded.
structural processing
a shallow level of information processing where a person primarily focuses on the physical characteristics or appearance of a stimulus, like the shape or font of a word, rather than its meaning or sound, essentially encoding information based on its visual structure.
episodic memory
a type of long-term memory that stores personal experiences and specific events, including details about the time and place where they occurred, essentially remembering “episodes” from one’s life, like recalling a specific birthday party or the first day of school; it is considered a form of explicit memory alongside semantic memory
procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that stores information about how to perform actions or skills, essentially the memory of “how to do something,” like riding a bike, typing on a keyboard, or tying your shoes, which are automatically retrieved and used without conscious awareness or effort; it is learned through repetition and practice.
working memory model
a theoretical framework that explains how the working memory system functions. It consists of three components: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive.
Working memory is a cognitive system with limited capacity that can hold information temporarily while processing or manipulating it simultaneously.
phonological loop
a component of working memory responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating auditory information, particularly verbal language, essentially acting like an “inner ear” that allows you to rehearse sounds and words mentally to remember them, like when trying to recall a phone number or follow spoken instructions.
Key points about the phonological loop:
Function: It processes and holds verbal and auditory information.
Components: The phonological loop is often described as having two parts:
Phonological store: A passive storage area for sounds.
Articulatory process: An active rehearsal mechanism, essentially your “inner voice” that repeats sounds to keep them in memory.
sensory memory
the initial stage of memory that briefly holds an exact copy of incoming sensory information from all five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell) for a very short period of time, allowing for further processing before the information is either discarded or transferred to short-term memory; essentially, it’s the ability to retain sensory impressions just long enough to recognize them after the original stimulus has ended.
short term memory
a cognitive system that temporarily holds a small amount of information for a brief period (around 20-30 seconds) and has a limited capacity, usually considered to be around 7 items, which can be actively processed before being either transferred to long-term memory or forgotten if not rehearsed; essentially, it’s the “working memory” where information is actively manipulated for a short time.
effortful processing
refers to the active processing of information that requires conscious effort and attention, meaning you need to deliberately focus to encode and remember new information, often used when learning complex concepts or tasks that don’t automatically catch your attention; it is the opposite of automatic processing
retrieval
the process of accessing and bringing information stored in memory back into conscious awareness, essentially the act of “remembering” something by pulling it from your long-term memory storage; it is considered the final stage of the memory process after encoding and storage.
phonemic processing
the process of encoding information based on how a word sounds, essentially remembering something by its auditory characteristics, like focusing on the sounds of a word rather than its meaning or visual appearance; it is considered a shallow level of processing within the Levels of Processing theory.
mnemonic devices
a memory technique or tool used to help recall information by creating associations between new information and something already familiar, often using acronyms, rhymes, or imagery, to make remembering easier; essentially, it’s a memory aid that helps encode information more effectively in the brain.
categorization
the cognitive process of mentally grouping objects, events, people, or experiences into classes based on shared characteristics, allowing us to organize and simplify our understanding of the world by creating mental categories that aid in quick decision-making and information retrieval; essentially, it’s the act of sorting things into groups based on what they have in common.
memory consolidation
the process by which the brain transforms short-term memories into more stable, long-lasting long-term memories, essentially strengthening and stabilizing newly encoded information to ensure it can be retrieved later on; it’s the process of converting a temporary memory trace into a permanent one within the brain.
serial position effect
the tendency for people to remember the first and last items in a list best, while recalling middle items less effectively, essentially meaning that the position of information within a sequence impacts how well it is remembered; this includes the “primacy effect” (remembering the beginning) and the “recency effect” (remembering the end) of a list.
method of loci
a mnemonic technique where a person visualizes familiar locations (like rooms in their house) to mentally place items they want to remember, essentially using spatial memory to enhance recall of information; it’s often described as a “memory palace” approach where you “walk through” the imagined locations to retrieve the stored details.
hierarchy
a system where elements are organized into levels, with some being considered “higher” or more important than others, often visualized as a pyramid structure; the most well-known example is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, where basic physiological needs are at the bottom and self-actualization is at the top, representing the progression of human needs that must be fulfilled in order.
massed practice
a learning method where a large amount of information is studied in a single, concentrated session with minimal breaks, essentially meaning “cramming” - the opposite of distributed practice which involves spacing out study sessions over time for better retention.
primacy effect
the tendency for people to remember information presented at the beginning of a list or sequence better than information presented later on, essentially meaning that first impressions often have a stronger impact on memory recall; it’s a cognitive bias where the first piece of information received is more likely to be remembered.
chunking
the cognitive process of organizing information into smaller, related groups (“chunks”) to improve memory retention, essentially breaking down large pieces of data into more manageable units that are easier to remember in short-term memory; it’s a common memory strategy used to bypass the limitations of working memory capacity.
spacing effect
the phenomenon where information is better retained when studied in spaced intervals over time, rather than being crammed together in a short period, meaning distributed practice leads to better long-term memory compared to massed practice.
distributed practice
a learning strategy where studying or practicing a skill is spread out over multiple sessions with intervals of time between them, essentially meaning you study a little bit each day rather than cramming all at once, which is considered a more effective way to retain information in long-term memory; also known as “spaced practice.”.
recency effect
the tendency for people to remember information presented at the end of a list or sequence better than information presented earlier, essentially meaning the most recent information is most easily recalled; this is considered a cognitive bias related to memory recall.
rehearsal
the act of repeatedly going over information in order to retain it in memory, essentially by mentally repeating the information to either maintain it in short-term memory or to transfer it to long-term memory; it can involve either simply repeating the information (maintenance rehearsal) or actively connecting it to existing knowledge (elaborative rehearsal).
autobiographical memory
a person’s memory for personal experiences and episodes from their own life, essentially a collection of memories that contribute to one’s sense of self and personal history; it is considered a type of explicit memory, drawing from both episodic and semantic memory components.
anterograde amnesia
a type of memory loss where a person is unable to form new memories after a traumatic event or brain injury, meaning they can recall past memories but cannot retain new information learned after the incident; essentially, it’s the inability to create new memories while still being able to access old ones.
Impact on memory: Difficulty in remembering events, facts, or experiences that occur after the onset of amnesia.
Contrast with retrograde amnesia: While anterograde amnesia affects the ability to form new memories, retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of memories from before the traumatic event.
Brain region involved: Damage to the hippocampus is often associated with anterograde amnesia.
maintenance rehearsal
the process of repeatedly saying or thinking about a piece of information to keep it active in your short-term memory, essentially just repeating information without adding any deeper meaning to retain it temporarily; like repeating a phone number until you can dial it.
superior autobiographical memory
refers to a rare condition called “Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)”, where individuals have an exceptional ability to recall detailed personal experiences and events from their past, often including specific dates, with remarkable accuracy; essentially, they can remember a vast amount of details about their own life story with extraordinary precision
alzheimer’s disease
a chronic brain disorder characterized by a progressive decline in memory, cognitive abilities, and personality, primarily caused by the buildup of abnormal proteins in the brain, leading to neuron loss and significant impairment in daily functioning, especially in later stages of the disease.
Progressive nature:
Symptoms gradually worsen over time, starting with mild memory issues and progressing to severe cognitive decline affecting language, reasoning, and basic self-care abilities.
Brain pathology:
The disease is associated with the accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain, particularly in areas related to memory like the hippocampus.
Impact on daily life:
As the disease progresses, individuals with Alzheimer’s may struggle with everyday tasks like cooking, driving, and managing finances.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis is typically based on clinical evaluation, cognitive assessments, and sometimes brain imaging to confirm the presence of characteristic brain changes.
elaborative rehearsal
a memory strategy where new information is actively linked to existing knowledge in long-term memory, creating deeper connections and enhancing the likelihood of retaining that information, essentially by making meaningful associations rather than simply repeating it; it is considered a “deep processing” technique compared to the more shallow “maintenance rehearsal” which involves simple repetition.
retrograde amnesia
a condition where a person is unable to recall memories from before the onset of amnesia, meaning they lose access to past events or information due to a traumatic experience or brain injury, while still being able to form new memories after the incident.
“Retro” meaning:
The term “retro” indicates “backward,” signifying that the memory loss affects events that happened before the amnesia-inducing event.
Contrast with anterograde amnesia:
While retrograde amnesia impacts past memories, anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to form new memories after the event.
Possible causes:
Head injuries, brain diseases, and severe psychological trauma can all lead to retrograde amnesia.
infantile amnesia
the phenomenon where adults have difficulty recalling personal experiences from their early childhood, typically from the first few years of life, due to the underdeveloped brain structures responsible for memory consolidation during infancy; essentially, the inability to remember events from one’s early childhood.
Brain development:
The primary explanation for infantile amnesia is the immaturity of the hippocampus, the brain region crucial for forming long-term memories, during early childhood.
Limited memory retrieval:
Even if some memories were formed during infancy, the lack of developed cognitive abilities can make it difficult to access and retrieve them later in life.
Not a complete memory loss:
While most people experience infantile amnesia, some individuals might have fragmented memories from their early years.
recall
the act of retrieving information from memory without any external cues or prompts, essentially meaning you must actively bring information back into conscious awareness from your long-term memory, like remembering a fact or event on your own without being given any hints.
No cues needed: Unlike recognition (identifying something you’ve seen before), recall requires you to access information solely based on your memory.
Example test format: Fill-in-the-blank questions on a test typically assess recall ability.
Memory process: Recall is considered a part of the retrieval process within memory, where information stored in long-term memory is brought back to conscious awareness.
context-dependent memory
the phenomenon where information is best recalled when the retrieval environment closely matches the context in which it was originally learned, meaning that memories are easier to access when you are in the same physical or situational context as when you first encoded the information; essentially, your surroundings can act as cues to trigger memory retrieval.
Encoding specificity principle:
Closely related to this concept, it suggests that the best retrieval cues are those that were present during the initial encoding of information.
Example:
If you study for a test in your bedroom, you are likely to perform better on the test if you take it in the same bedroom.
testing effect
the phenomenon where actively retrieving information through testing or quizzing yourself enhances long-term memory retention more effectively than simply re-reading material, essentially meaning that taking practice tests can improve your learning and recall of information.
Retrieval practice:
The testing effect is also known as “retrieval practice” as it emphasizes the act of actively retrieving information from memory.
Better retention:
Studies show that incorporating practice tests into your study routine leads to better long-term memory compared to passive review methods.
Feedback is crucial:
To maximize the testing effect, receiving immediate feedback on your answers during practice tests is important.
recognition
a memory process where an individual identifies something as familiar, meaning they have encountered it before, without necessarily being able to recall specific details about it; essentially, it’s the act of “recognizing” something as previously experienced, often demonstrated by selecting a correct answer from a set of options like on a multiple-choice test.
state dependent memory
the phenomenon where individuals are more likely to recall information if their physical or mental state at the time of retrieval is similar to their state when the information was originally encoded, meaning that memories are easier to access when you are in the same physiological or psychological condition as when you first formed them; for example, remembering details better if you are slightly intoxicated when trying to recall something you learned while also intoxicated.
metacognition
the awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, essentially “thinking about thinking,” where an individual actively monitors and regulates their cognitive strategies to improve learning and problem-solving abilities.
Definition:
The ability to reflect on and analyze one’s own thinking patterns, including how they approach tasks, solve problems, and acquire information.
Components:
Metacognitive knowledge: Understanding one’s strengths and weaknesses as a learner, knowing which strategies are most effective for different tasks.
Metacognitive regulation: The ability to actively control and adjust one’s cognitive processes based on the situation.
Example:
Recognizing that you don’t understand a concept while reading, then deciding to re-read the section or seek clarification.
retrieval
the process of accessing and bringing information stored in memory back into conscious awareness, essentially the act of “remembering” something by pulling it from your long-term memory storage; it is considered the final stage of the memory process after encoding and storage.
Examples:
Trying to remember a friend’s name, recalling details from a past event, or answering a question on a test that requires you to pull information from your memory.
mood congruent memory
the tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one’s current emotional state, meaning if you are feeling sad, you are more likely to remember negative memories, and if you are happy, you are more likely to remember positive memories; essentially, your mood influences which memories are easier to access.
If you are arguing with your partner and feeling angry, you might be more likely to recall past arguments with them due to the mood congruence effect.
forgetting curve
a graphical representation showing how quickly information is forgotten over time, illustrating that most information is lost shortly after learning it, with the rate of forgetting slowing down as time passes, unless active efforts are made to retain the knowledge; this concept is primarily attributed to the research of Hermann Ebbinghaus.
encoding failure
the inability to effectively store information in long-term memory because the initial processing and encoding of that information was not done properly, essentially meaning the information never got transferred from short-term to long-term memory due to insufficient attention or processing depth during the encoding stage; leading to difficulty recalling it later.
Not being able to remember someone’s name you were just introduced to because you were not paying attention when they said it.
source amnesia
the inability to recall the origin or source of a memory, meaning you might remember a piece of information but not where you learned it from, when you learned it, or who told you it; essentially, forgetting the “source” of the knowledge while still retaining the information itself.
Example: Knowing a fact like “the capital of California is Sacramento” but not remembering if you learned it in school, from a friend, or read it online.
imagination inflation
a phenomenon where repeatedly imagining an event that never happened can increase a person’s confidence that it actually did occur, essentially creating a false memory by blurring the lines between real experiences and imagined ones; it’s a type of memory distortion where the act of imagining something makes it seem more likely to have happened in reality.
Memory distortion:
It’s considered a form of memory distortion because it leads people to believe they have experienced something they only imagined.
Repeated imagining:
The more times someone imagines an event, the stronger the belief that it happened can become.
Relevance to false memories:
This concept is particularly important in understanding the development of false memories, especially in situations like recovered memory therapy or police interrogations where individuals might be asked to repeatedly imagine events.
proactive interference
when previously learned information hinders the ability to learn or recall new information, essentially meaning that old memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories; it’s like when an old address you used to live at makes it difficult to remember your new address after moving.
If you study a list of Spanish vocabulary words, then study a list of French vocabulary words, you might find it harder to recall the French words because the Spanish words are already well-established in your memory.
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
the experience of feeling like you know a word or piece of information, but are unable to recall it at that moment, almost as if the word is “on the tip of your tongue,” even though you can often access related information about it; it essentially describes a temporary failure to retrieve a specific memory despite feeling close to accessing it.
Feeling of knowing:
Even though you can’t access the exact word, you often feel like you could recognize it if you saw it.
Partial retrieval:
You might be able to recall similar sounding words or related concepts, but not the specific word you’re searching for.
Cognitive process:
This phenomenon is studied in cognitive psychology as an example of how memory retrieval can sometimes be partially successful.
misinformation effect
the phenomenon where a person’s memory of an event becomes distorted due to exposure to misleading information after the event occurred, essentially incorporating false details into their recollection of what happened; this is often studied in the context of eyewitness testimony and memory reliability, with research by Elizabeth Loftus being particularly prominent in this area
If someone witnesses a car accident and is later asked a question that includes a misleading detail (like “Did you see the broken glass?” when there was no broken glass), they might be more likely to report seeing broken glass in their memory.
retroactive interference
the phenomenon where newly learned information disrupts the ability to recall previously learned information, essentially meaning that new memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories, creating a “backward” effect on memory recall.
Learning a new phone number might make it difficult to remember your old phone number.
repression
a psychological defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously pushes distressing thoughts, memories, and emotions out of conscious awareness, effectively “forgetting” them to protect themselves from emotional pain and anxiety by keeping them buried in the unconscious mind; essentially, it’s the act of actively blocking painful experiences from conscious recall.
Sigmund Freud’s theory: Repression is a central concept in Freudian psychoanalysis.
Example: Someone who experienced a traumatic childhood event may repress the memory, making them unable to consciously recall it.
constructive memory
the idea that when we recall a memory, we actively reconstruct it based on our existing knowledge, beliefs, and experiences, which can lead to the inclusion of false details or distortions of the original event, meaning our memories aren’t simply retrieved but are actively constructed during recall; essentially, our brains “fill in the gaps” when remembering something, potentially leading to inaccurate details.
Example: If you are asked to recall a childhood birthday party, you might remember details that weren’t actually there, like a specific cake flavor, because it aligns with your typical birthday party schema.
