Unit 3 Flashcards
Research design - an overview
what should the researcher carefully consider before conducting research?
the most effective approach to answer the research questions, achieve their objectives and test their hypothesis
What do Objectives help us with?
- help to stay focused and steer researching required direction
- define and limit scope of research (to manage resource and time)
What are Types of research objectives?
General: state what the research expects to achieve overall (main goal)
Specific: break this down into smaller, logically connected parts
What is an example for the general objective?
determine how work environment affects performance
What is an example for the specific objective?
Determine wether sunlight improves performance, and measures how performance changes
What is a research design?
the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way
What are the 2 main types of research designs?
Qualitative and Quantitative
What does Quantitative research focus on?
measuring and analyzing numerical data
-> aims to identify patterns, make predictions and test hypotheses
What does Qualitative research focuses on?
exploring and understanding people’s experiences, thoughts and behaviors
Which kind of research is this?
Developing a questionnaire that you would ask a sample of teenagers to complete. You could ask about the number of hours they work, the type of work they do, their levels of stress, their school grades, and their relationships with family and friends.
Quantitative Research
What kind of research is this?
Series of focus groups in which you gather together groups of 8 to 10 teenagers and engage them in a discussion about their perceptions and experiences with the world of work
Qualitative research
What is the objective of quantitative research?
quantify data and generalize findings from a sample to gain insights into the broader population of interest
What is the objective of qualiitative research?
Understanding underlying reasons or motivations
How is the Sample in Quantitative research?
large and broad, statistically projectable (ability to use data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about larger population)
How is the Sample in Qualitative research?
small and narrow, not statistically projectable
How is data collected in quantitative research?
standardized instruments, operation of variables
How is data collected in qualitative research?
adapted to the situation, variables not defined in advance
What can quantitative research methods be applied to?
descriptive, correlational or experimental studies
What is the aim of descriptive research?
to provide a comprehensive summary of the study variables
What is the focus of correlational research?
on exploring the relationships between the study variables
What is the aim in experimental research?
to systematically investigate wether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between the variables
What is an Experiment?
a type of study designed specifically to answer the question of whether there is a causal relationship between two variables
What are the 2 fundamental features of an experiment?
manipulate the independent variable
minimize the variability in variables other than independent and dependent variable
-> extraneous or external variables
What is an Extraneous variable?
the factors being held constant
What is the Confounding variable?
an outside influence that can affect the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable
-> can create false impression of relationship
Which variables could be what in an example regarding weight loss?
confounding variable: diet
-> if participants who exercise also tend to eat healthier, it may be difficult to determine wether exercise alone is responsible for weight loss
extraneous variables: factors like age, gender, sleep patterns
-> not primary focus of study
can both variables (confounding and extraneous) impact the results of a study?
yes! but cofounding variables specifically interfere with the interpretation of causal relationships, extraneous ones may not directly affect those relationships
when is an empirical study said to be high in internal validity?
if the way it was conducted supports the conclusion the independent variable caused any observes differences in the dependent variable
why are experiments high in internal validity?
because the way they are conducted provides strong support for causal conclusions
What are non-experimental research designs low in?
internal validity
What does experimental design refer to?
refers to the specific structure, setup and process of how the experiment is organized and carried out
- the plan for conducting experimental research
what is the goal of experimental designs?
to ensure that the research method is valid and reliable
- well-thought-out design minimizes potential biases
What are the 2 types of experimental designs?
Experimental group (the treatment is present)
Control group (the treatment is withheld)
What is the Between Subject experimental design?
Each participant is tested in only one condition, and different groups of participants are exposed to different conditions or levels of the independent variable
What is Random Assignment?
using a random process to decide which participants are tested in which conditions
What does random assignment help with?
to eliminate bias and ensure equal chances between participants
What is a Within-Subject experimental design?
Each participant is tested under all conditions
What can the experimenter rely on to implement effective experimental control?
Maximize independent variance
Minimize error variance
Controlling external variable
What does Maximizing independent variance refer to?
increasing the variability in the independent variable to better assess its effect on the dependent variable
-> maximize likelihood of changes in DV are effect of IV
What does Minimize error variance refer to?
means reducing the variability in the dependent variable
-> reducing random, unplanned variability
How can we Minimize error variance?
Suitable measuring instruments
Rigorous research planning
What does it mean to control external variables?
managing or reducing the influence of outside factors that could interfere with the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable in an experiment
How can we control external variables?
Assumption of normality
Balancing the design
Removal of outliers
What does assumption of normality refer to?
the expectation that the data being analyzed follows a normal distribution, which is often represented as a bell-shaped curve
What is the normal distribution also known as?
a Gaussian distribution
Where do the data values tend to cluster in a normal distribution?
around the mean (average) value
What does a balanced design has?
an equal number of observations for all possible level combinations
What does the Removal of outliers refer to?
the process of identifying and eliminating data points that significantly deviate from the rest of the data in a dataset
What are benefits of random assignment?
Reduce or eliminate the influence of extraneous variables that van be known or controlled
What is true experimental research?
IV manipulated
random assignment
control group or multiple measures
What is quasi-experimental research?
the prefix quasi means “resembling”
-> research that resembles experimental research but is not true experimental research
Where are quasi-experiments most likely to be conducted?
field settings in which random assignment is difficult or impossible
-> often conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment
Where is quasi-experimental research commonly used?
in real-world settings
what is often used in quasi-experimental design?
between-subjects design (when random assignment is not possible)
What is the quasi-experimental design sometimes called?
the pre-post intervention design
What is the Single-subject design?
an individual “case” is the unit of intervention and unit of data analysis
-> own control for purposes of comparison
How is the outcome variable measured?
repeatedly within and across different conditions or levels of the independent variable
What is evidence for the effectiveness of the manipulation?
a change in the subjects behavior from baseline to treatment periods
What does correlational psychology focus on?
examining the relationships between naturally occurring variables and exploring individual differences
What does experimental psychology typically aims to?
to minimize or control these individual differences
When do we use the non-experimental design?
situations in which the independent variable cannot be manipulated for practical or ethical reasons
What can not be drawn in non-experimental design (unlike experimental research)?
causal conclusion
is non-experimental research less important than experimental research?
NO
What can the non-experimental design be divided into?
Correlational
Descriptive
What does Correlational research focus on?
focuses on the statistical relationship between two variables but does not include the manipulation of an independent variable
What is measured in correlational research?
2 variables with little or no attempt to control extraneous variables and then assesses the relationship between them
What is the Correlation coefficient?
a basic method for analyzing correlations between variables
What does positive, negative and no correlation mean?
positive: both variables increase or decrease at the same time
negative: as the amount of one variable increase, the other decreases
no correlation: there is no relationship between the two variables
What is Pearsons Correlation Coefficient?
A statistic that measures the strength of a correlation between quantitative variables
What does the Pearsons Correlation Coefficient range from?
-1.00 to +1.00
0 = no relationship
What is important to know in correlational study?
to know wether a relationship between variables is relatively weak or strong
What provides information about the strength of the relationship?
The Pearson f
What can the person correlation coefficient not detect?
Curvilinear Relationships
ONLY linear relationships
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?
an inverted U-shape
What are 2 common approaches in correlational research?
- Survey study
-> method for collecting information or data as reported by individuals
(e.g.: questionnaires) - Case study
What are 3 approaches to study change over time?
cross-sectional studies
longitudinal studies
cohort studies
What do cross sectional studies involve?
two or more pre-existing groups of people
what is a longitudinal study?
collecting data over time to observe changes or developments in a specific variable or a set of variables
-> participants studied over a long period of time
What are cohort studies?
type of observational study that follows a specific group of people (a cohort) who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined period
What is internal validity?
the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause and effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome
How is internal validity in correlation, quasi-experimental and experimental research?
correlational (low)
quasi-experimental (moderate)
experimental (high)
What is a descriptive study?
a type of research that describes characteristics or features of a population or phenomenon without assessing cause-effect relationships
-> what is rather than why
What is Naturalistic observation?
observing subjects in natural environment
what is Systematic observation?
involves a structured approach
What is Frequency distribution?
a tool commonly used in descriptive studies
-> help summarize and describe data by showing how often each value or range of values occurs within a dataset
What can a single number be used to?
used to describe the central tendency or how participants score overall
What can another number describe in descriptive statistics?
variability or how widely the distribution of scores is spread
What is the central tendency?
the mean (adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores) and the mode (most frequent score)
What is the Variability?
Standard deviation (average deviation of scores from the mean)
What is Ethnography?
An in-depth, extended study of a culture within its natural environment, where the researcher primarily collects observational data
What is a case study?
examining a single entity or phenomenon
What is Historical research?
the use of historical data to answer a research question
-> involves systematic collection and objective evaluation of information about past events
What is an in-depth interview?
conducting comprehensive individual interviews with a small number of participants to explore their perspectives on a specific idea
What is a Document review?
involves systematically evaluating existing documents to gather information relevant to a specific research question or topic
What is a type of review that synthesizes evidence from multiple systematic reviews or meta-analyses on a broad topic?
the umbrella review
What is a literature review?
summarizes a topic that is broad in scope
What is a systematic review?
answer a specific question
What is meta-analysis?
examines studies from a systematic review and compiles data to achieve a statistically significant result
