Unit 1 Flashcards
The scientific method and its role in Psychology
What are the different ways of knowing?
Authority
Use of Reason
Empiricism
Cognitive Biases
Scientific Method
What is “authority” as a way of knowing?
Accepting the validity of information from a source considered an expert (e.g., children accepting their parents’ knowledge)
How does “Use of Reason” work as a way of knowing? What is an example?
arriving at conclusions by using logic and reason
-> e.g.: All humans are mortal. John is a human. Therefore, John is mortal.
What is “empiricism” in ways of knowing?
Learning through direct observations and experiences.
-> involves asking empirical questions to gain knowledge (e.g., What are the effects of stress on health?).
What is an issue with Empiricism that can occur?
experiences and interpretations can be influenced by social cognition biases
What is confirmation bias?
tendency to seek and pay attention to information that supports one’s belief, while ignoring information that contradicts a belief
What is Belief Perseverance?
tendency to hold on to a belief, even in the face of evidence that would convince most people that the belief is false
What is Availability heuristic?
when we experience unusual or very memorable events and then overestimate how often such events typically occur
-> mental shortcut to make decisions or judgements based on how easily examples come to mind
What is “Science” in ways of knowing?
It involves a number of interrelated assumptions and characteristics
What are the key characteristics of science in understanding behavior?
Determinism
Discoverability
Systematic Observations
Public Knowledge
Data-Based Conclusions
Empirical Questions
Falsifiable Theories
What is Determinism and Discoverability in Science?
- Determinism: all events have causes (including psychological ones)
- Discoverability: we can discover the causes by using agreed-upon scientific methods
-> we would like to know what causes behavior (determinism) and it is with the tools of science that we can discover those causes (discoverability)
What does it mean that science makes systematic observations?
A) precise definitions of the phenomena being measured B) reliable and valid measuring tools
C) generally accepted research methodologies
D) a system of logic for drawing conclusions and fitting those conclusions into general theories.
What does it mean that science produces data-based conclusions?
Scientists are data driven. Conclusions are reached based on facts, observations and data gathered from experiments, research or studies.
-> do not rely on guesses or opinions
-> they analyze the data they collect and use it to make decisions or form conclusions
What are tentative conclusions?
conclusions drawn from data are always tentative, subject to revision based on future research
-> the conclusions are not final! - reflect the evolving nature of scientific knowledge
What are Empirical questions?
those that can be answered through the systematic observations and techniques that characterize scientific methodology.
What does it mean that theories can be falsified?
results can come out different than expected.
How did the discipline of psychology start?
Philosophers, writers, poets, and even salesman are interested in the nature of
human thought and action
-> started in second half of nineteenth century
How did psychology become a scientific discipline?
Knowledge should be gained empirically (i.e. through experience), with a method that uses careful observation and experiments to gather facts and evidence
What are the goals of research in psychology?
Describe
Predict
Explain
Apply
What does each goal of research in psychology mean?
Describe: provide good description, identify regularly occurring sequences of events
Predict: say that behavior follows law - regular and predictable relationships exist
Explain: explain some behavior is to know what caused it to happen
Apply: various ways of applying principles of behavior learned through research
What is Epistemology?
the theory of knowledge
Which sources of information can actually bring knowledge?
Perception
Reason
Introspection
Human Memory
Testimony
What is the Procedure for conduction an investigation that relies upon experimentation and systematic observation rather than theoretical speculation?
Observation, Induction, Deduction, Testing, Evaluation
What is Experimental Psychology?
The approach adopted is essentially scientific
-> theory needs to fit the facts of behavior derived from systematic observations carried out under carefully controlled conditions
What are 3 methods of the empirical method?
Inductive
Deductive
Hypothetico-deductive
What is the Inductive method?
Experience is the starting point to generate knowledge. It begins with a research question and the collection of empirical data, which are used to generate hypotheses and theories.
-> It builds generalizations from specific instances.
-> based on observation
What is the deductive method?
Begins with theory-driven hypotheses (general laws), which guide data collection and analysis. Logical consequences are deduced and applied to reality.
-> General principles to reach specific conclusions.
What is the adductive method?
Starts with incomplete set of observations (‘surprising facts’ or ‘puzzles’). The researcher seeks to choose the ‘best’ or likeliest possible explanation
-> formation of hypothesis/diagnosis
-> evaluating hypothesis (which explanation is the most plausible one)
What is the difference between adductive method and hypothetico-deductive method?
- Abductive method: about generating the best explanations for observations
- Hypothetico-deductive method: about testing those explanations through specific predictions
What is the difference between the former and the latter?
former: about forming hypotheses from data
latter: focused on validating or invalidating those hypotheses through structured testing