Unit 3 Flashcards
Cognitive development in adolescence
What ages are the 4 stages of Piagets theory of development in?
Birth to 2 years
2 - 7 years
7- 11 years
11 - adulthood
Which mental processes do the 4 stages of Piagets theory of development contain?
Sensorimotor intelligence (birth-2)
Preoperational Thought (2-7)
Concrete Operations (7-11)
Formal Operations (11-adulthood)
What is a short description of the Sensorimotor Intelligence stage from Piagets theory?
Infants ‘think’ by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands and mouth
What do Infants in the Sensorimotor intelligence stage invent?
ways of solving sensorimotor problems
What is the main development in the sensorimotor stage?
to understand that objects exist, and events occur in the world independently of one’s actions
When is Object permanence developed and what is it?
in the sensorimotor intelligence
- knowing an object exists even if it is hidden
What is a short description of the Preoperational thought stage from Piagets theory?
Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries
Can children in the preoperational thought use cognitive operations?
not yet
What takes place in the Preoperational thought?
Development of language and make-believe play
What can children not do yet in the preoperational stage?
use logic or transform, combine or separate ideas
What is a short description of the Concrete Operational stage from Piagets theory?
Children’s reasoning becomes logical and better organized
-> only apply logic to physical objects
Which kind of thinking do children develop in the concrete operational stage?
organized and rational thinking
Can children in the concrete operational stage think abstractly or hypothetically?
no
What is a short description of the Formal Operational Stage from Piagets theory?
Adolescents gain ability to think in abstract manner by manipulating ideas in their head
What are adolescents in the formal operational stage not dependent on?
concrete manipulation
What can adolescents do in the formal operational stage?
mathematical calculations, thinking creatively, use abstract reasoning and imagine the outcome of particular actions
How are problems approached in the formal operational stage?
in a systematic and organized manner
What is hypothetical deductive reasoning?
the ability to think scientifically through generalizing predictions or hypotheses to answer questions
What are formal operations are carried out on?
ideas
can adolescents think in hypothetical and abstract concepts?
yes
what is important for regarding the future?
abstract thought
What is an everyday example of the sensorimotor stage?
baby playing with a rattling toy. at first, accidentally shaking it - hearing the sound. .
then: repeat action, learn that shaking the rattle causes sound
-> understanding cause and effect
What is an everyday example of the preoperational stage?
child playing ‘pretending’ banana is a phone
-> symbolic thinking
What is an everyday example of the concrete operational stage?
child is learning math and can understand that two equal rows of coins in different orders (one spread out) doesn’t change the number of coins
-> concept of conservation
What is an everyday example of the formal operational stage?
teenager discussing hypothetical situations about world issues - debating climate change solutions
-> ability to think abstractly and reasons bout complex, hypothetical problems
How do formal operational adolescents differ from concrete operational children in terms of thinking?
formal operational adolescents can ‘operate on operations’, whereas concrete operational children can only ‘operate on reality’
How do adolescents create logical rules during the formal operational stage?
through internal reflection
How does curriculum reflect the shift from concrete to formal, logical thought during the Formal Operational Stage?
The curriculum changes between primary and secondary school, showing the shift from concrete to formal, logical thought.
What is Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning?
when adolescents start with a hypothesis or prediction about variables that might affect an outcome, from which they deduce logical, testable inferences.
How do adolescents test their hypotheses in Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning?
They systematically isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed in the real world.
At what stage does deductive reasoning first develop, and how is it limited?
in the concrete-operational stage but can only be applied to problems related to personal experiences
Give an example of deductive reasoning from the Formal Operational Stage.
If A = B and B = C, then A = C
What does hypothetic-deductive reasoning involves?
applying deductive logic to abstract and hypothetical problems and unknown situations
How would a concrete-operator approach a hypothetical question about volunteering to help elderly people with dementia?
A concrete-operator may only consider the question in relation to their own experiences (e.g., I would find it difficult because I have trouble relating to old people).
How would a formal-operator approach a hypothetical question about volunteering to help elderly people with dementia?
A formal-operator would consider how volunteering could affect others and society (e.g., helping would give the patients’ carers a break to attend to personal matters).
How did Piaget test Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning in formal operational adolescents?
He used the pendulum problem to see how they identify which variables affect the swing of the pendulum
What four variables do formal operational adolescents hypothesize might influence the pendulum’s swing?
1 Length of the string
2 Weight of the object
3 How high the object is raised
4 How forcefully it is pushed.
How do formal operational adolescents test these variables in the pendulum problem?
By varying one factor at a time while holding the other three constant, they systematically test each variable.
What do formal operational adolescents eventually discover in the pendulum problem?
They discover that only the string length affects the pendulum’s swing.
What is the Pendulum problem?
Concrete operational children cannot separate the effects of each variabel
- approach task randomly
What do adolescents become capable of by age ~14?
deductive reasoning
What does deductive reasoning begin with?
with an abstract idea or premise
-> then use logic to draw specific conclusions
What is inductive reasoning (bottom-up reasoning)?
predominates during the school years as children accumulate facts and experiences (the knowledge base) to aid their thinking
How does inductive reasoning differ from deductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning starts with specific facts or experiences and works towards a general conclusion, while deductive reasoning starts with a general principle and draws specific conclusions from it.
What is an example of inductive reasoning?
Since children know that whales cannot walk, they use this specific knowledge to override any flawed general conclusions, like “all mammals can walk.”
where does the reasoning come from in inductive reasoning?
one or more specific experiences or facts to reach a general conclusion
Which reasoning is Top-down?
Deductive reasoning
Which reasoning is Bottom-up?
Inductive reasoning
What is propositional thought in the context of the formal operational stage?
the ability to evaluate the logic of propositions (verbal statements) without referring to real-world circumstances.
When does propositional thought develop?
during adolescence
What is proposition?
a statement that expresses a concept that can be true or false
How do adolescents evaluate propositions differently than children?
Adolescents can evaluate the logic of propositions abstractly, while children evaluate them only by considering concrete evidence from the real world.
What is an example to study propositional thought?
showing children and adolescents a pile of poker chips and asking: are the statements true, false or uncertain
What did adolescents understand in the poker experiment?
that the “either-or” statement is always true and the “and” statement is always false, regardless of the chip’s color
Can propositional thought appear earlier than the formal operational stage?
Yes, when presented with a simple set of premises that defies real-world knowledge during make-believe play, 4- to 6-year-olds can reason logically.
Provide an example of how young children reason in make-believe play.
If asked, “All cats bark. Rex is a cat. Does Rex bark?” young children might respond, “We can pretend cats bark!” showing their ability to reason within the context of play.
in what mode do children have great difficulty reasoning from premises that contradict reality or their own beliefs?
in an entirely verbal mode
Give an example of reasoning that younger children may judge as false.
“If dogs are bigger than elephants and elephants are bigger than mice, then dogs are bigger than mice.” Children younger than 10 may reject this reasoning because the premises contradict real-life knowledge.
What is a key critique of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
While children generally progress through the stages in the same order, the age at which they progress varies for each individual, even though Piaget recognized this variability.
What was Piaget’s common mistake regarding competence and performance?
failed to distinguish between competence (cognitive structure) and performance.
-> If a child could not carry out a specific task, it was assumed they lacked the cognitive competence to complete it successfully.
Why is it problematic to conflate competence with performance in cognitive development?
can lead to underestimating a child’s cognitive abilities based on their inability to perform a task rather than assessing their actual understanding or potential.
Do all individuals reach formal operations?
There is not abundant support for the acquisition of formal operations and
their application in everyday life in all adults
Do well-educated adults often have difficulties with formal operational tasks?
yes
When are people most likely to think abstractly and systematically on tasks?
when they have had extensive guidance and practice in using such reasoning
What are Information-processing changes in adolescence?
Variety of specific mechanisms, including components of executive functions, as underlying cognitive gains in adolescence
What are some examples of the Information-processing changes in adolescence?
Working memory increases (more information is held in mind at once)
Inhibition improves (gain in attention and reasoning)
Attention becomes more selective and flexible
Planning improves
Strategies become more effective
Knowledge increases
What can be some consequences/dramatic revisions of adolescent cognitive changes?
Egocentrism
Personal fable
Invincible fable
The Imaginary Audience
Idealism
What is Egocentrism?
ability to reflect on own thoughts combined with physical and psychological changes leads to think more about oneself and what others think of one
-> adolescents regard themselves as much more unique, special and admired or disliked than anyone else considers them to be
What can Egocentric people struggle with?
- Understanding other people’s point of view
- also feels like adults do not understand them
What is Personal fable?
adolescents are certain that others observe them and think about them
-> inflated opinion of their own importance
-> feeling that they are special and unique, destined to have a heroic, fabled, even legendary life
What is Invincibility fable?
egocentric conviction that adolescent cannot be overcome or even harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal (e.g.: unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving)
-> worries parents
What is the Imaginary audience?
belief that they are at center stage with all eyes on them
-> imagine how others might react to their appearance and behavior
-> they are FOCUS OF EVERYONE ELSE’S ATTENTION
What does the Imaginary audience do to teenagers?
makes them extremely self-conscious
What is Idealism?
Adolescent’s capacity to think about possibilities opens up the world of the ideal
-> can imagine alternative family, religious, political and moral systems and they want to explore them
-> often construct grand visions of a world with no injustice, discrimination or tasteless behavior
How do Teenagers often perform in Decision Making?
less well than adults
-> they must inhibit emotion and impulses in favor of thinking rationally
What are some issues for adolescents in Decision-Making?
- less often carefully evaluate alternatives, instead: well-learned intuitive judgements
- first-timers: do not have sufficient knowledge to consider pros and cons
There are 2 modes of thinking in cognitive psychology, what are some examples?
Intuitive - Analytic
Implicit - Explicit
Creative - Factual
Contextualized - Decontextualized
Unconscious - Conscious
Emotional - Intellectual
Experiential - Rational
Hot - Cold
System 1 - System 2
Do the two modes of thinking interact and overlap?
yes, but each mode is still independent
What characteristics do System 1 and System 2 have in thinking?
System 1: easier and quicker - preferred in everyday life (Intuitive)
-> from emotion or hunch, beyond rational explanation, influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions
System 2: more careful thought (Analytic)
-> results from analysis, systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts
-> depend on logic and rationality
What reflects the duality of the 2 modes of thinking?
The discrepancy between maturation of the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex
What does it mean that we are all “predictably irrational”?
When the 2 modes of thinking conflict, people of all ages sometimes use one and sometimes the other
Adolescents use more System 1
Teachers and Parents more System 2
What did Klaczynski’s studies on adolescent cognition reveal about modes of thinking?
almost every adolescent is analytical and logical on some problems but not on others.
-> As they grow older, their logic can improve or regress, influenced by social context and training in statistics
How does competence relate to performance in adolescent cognition?
Competence does not always predict performance
How do the two modes of thinking develop during adolescence?
- both forms develop during adolescence
- sometimes intuitive processes crowd out analytic ones because emotions overwhelm logic, especially when adolescents are together
With what does the capacity for logical and reflective thinking increase?
with neurological maturation, as the prefrontal cortex matures
What seems to directly relate to the dual processes?
brain maturation seems directly related to the dual process
How can we explain adolescents tendency to follow their intuition instead of their analysis?
adolescents brains respond quickly and deeply to social rejection, teens readily follow impulses that promise social approval
