Unit 2 Flashcards
Physical development in adolescence
Which 3 forces combine to influence adolescent development?
Biological, psychological and social forces
what are biological changes?
universal changes in the body (found in all primates and all cultures)
what are some internal stresses and social expectations adolescents face?
- giving up childish ways
- developing new interpersonal relationships
- taking on greater responsibility
What are internal stresses and social expectations in adulthood likely to prompt?
moments of uncertainty, self-doubt and disappointment in all teenagers
How does adolescence length vary among cultures?
It varies substantially among cultures, with tribal and village societies having a brief intervening phase, while industrialized nations have an extended adolescence.
What are the three phases of adolescence in industrialized nations?
Early adolescence: 11-14 years (rapid pubertal change)
Middle adolescence: 14-16 (pubertal changes nearly complete)
Late adolescence: 16 - 18 (full adult appearance, anticipation of adult roles)
At what age does rapid pubertal change occur?
during early adolescence from 11 - 14 years
When are pubertal changes nearly complete?
during middle adolescence from 14 - 16 years
When does a young person achieve full adult appearance?
In late adolescence, from 16 - 18 years
What is puberty?
it refers to the years of rapid physical growth and sexual maturation that end childhood
-> person of adult size, shape and sexuality
what unleashes the forces of puberty?
a cascade of hormones
what do the cascade of hormones during puberty produce?
external growth, internal changes
-> including heightened emotions and sexual desires
what happened over the past decades to the age of puberty?
it decreased
is there a difference between the time girls and boys reach puberty?
yes, girls reach puberty on average two years earlier
What are some of the observable changes through puberty for girls?
- usually begin with nipple growth
- pubic hair
- peak growth spurt
- widening of the hips
- first menstrual period
- full breast growth
How do you call the first menstrual period of a girl?
Menarche
What does the Menarche signal?
that the girl has begun ovulation
is a pregnancy possible after the first period?
biologically yes, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche
What is the average age for menarche?
about 12 years and 4 months
-> variation in time is quite normal
What are some of the observable changes through puberty for boys?
- growth of the testes
- initial pubic hair growth
- growth of penis
- first ejaculation of seminal fluid
- appearance of facial hair
- peak growth spurt
- deepening of the voice
- final pubic hair growth
What is the first ejaculation of sperm called?
Spermarche
When does a boy start having erections?
in early infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production
how may the spermache occur?
during sleep in a ‘wet dream’ or via direct stimulation
What is the typical age of spermache?
just under 13 years, almost a year later than menarche
When does puberty typically begin?
between 8 and 16
how long does the entire process of puberty usually take?
about seven years
does the sequence of puberty vary between individuals?
no, the sequence of puberty is usually the same for everyone, though the timing varies widely.
Which axis do many hormones regulating puberty follow?
the HPA (hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal) axis
What is the role of the HPG axis in puberty?
It regulates the enlargement of gonads and increases the production of sex hormones during puberty.
Which hormone causes the gonads to enlarge and dramatically increase their production of sex hormones?
GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
What are the typical hormones in boys and girls?
boys: testosterone
girls: estradiol
what are estrogens (including estradiol)?
female hormones
what are androgens (including testosterone)
male hormones
do androgens only occur in girls and androgens only in boys?
no, both sexes have some of both
what do the activated gonads produce?
sperm or ova, released in menarche or spermarche
what does menarche and spermache indicate?
that conception is possible
what is the growth spurt?
rapid gain in height and weight
when is growth in body size usually completed?
for girls by age 16 and for boys by age 17 1/2
what reverses during puberty?
the cephalocaudal growth
what is cephalocaudal growth?
pattern of growth that occurs from head to toe
what does it mean that the cephalocaudal growth reverses?
the hands, legs, and feet accelerate first, followed by the torso
what does the pattern of reversed cephalocaudal growth explain?
why early adolescents often appear awkward and out of proportion - long legged with giant feet and hands
What are primary sexual characteristics?
they involve the reproductive organs
-> every primary sex organ (ovaries, uterus, penis, testes) increases dramatically in size and matures in function
what is possible by the end of the primary sexual process?
reproduction
what are secondary sexual characteristics?
visible, bodily features
-> no direct affect on reproduction
example: man’s beard and woman’s breast
-> indicate sexual maturity
How does the development of the shape differ between girls and boys?
similar shapes but
- males widen at shoulders and grow approximately 12 cm taller than females.
- girls widen at the hips and develop breasts
are widened hips and breasts required for conception?
no. thus they are secondary sex characteristics
in what sense are secondary sex characteristics important?
psychologically
What contributes substantially to the timing of pubertal changes?
Heredity
how much of the variation in age of puberty is genetic?
about two-thirds
what does genetics in the timing of puberty mean for identical twins?
Identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins in attainment of most pubertal milestones
how do sex chromosomes affect height in adolescents?
Sex chromosomes have a marked effect on height, with average girls being about two years ahead of average boys.
when does the female height spurt occur?
before menarche
when does the male height increase typically happen?
relatively late, after spermarche
How do nutrition and exercise affect female pubertal growth?
A sharp rise in body weight and fat can accelerate (beschleunigen) sexual maturation in females.
What role does leptin play in female puberty?
- released by fat cells
- signals brain that energy stores are sufficient for puberty
-> leading to earlier breast and pubic hair growth and menarche in heavier girls.
How does rigorous athletic training affect puberty in girls?
Girls who begin rigorous athletic training or eat very little, reducing body fat percentage, usually experience later puberty.
is there a link between body fat and puberty in boys?
few studies report a link between body fat and puberty in boys
What is the definition of secular trend?
is a variable that evidences a consistent pattern within a given period of time. It is a statistical tendency that can be easily identified and is not subject to seasonal or cyclical effects.
What is the secular trend
The long-term upward or downward direction of various measurements due to modern conditions.
How have improved nutrition and medical care affected puberty?
they have led to earlier puberty and greater average in height over the past 200 years
What impact has increased food availability had on childhood?
It has led to weight gain in childhood, resulting in earlier puberty for girls and taller average height for both sexes.
What is the pattern of puberty onset across generations?
Due to the secular trend, each generation has reached puberty earlier than the previous one for centuries.
How does stress affect the onset of puberty?
it accelerates the hormonal onset of puberty
What influences the age of menarche?
genes and experience
can minor stresses trigger menarche?
yes (like starting new school or a fight with a friend)
-> only if girls body is ready
How do different parts of the body grow?
at different rates
What is myelination?
Myelination is the process of forming a myelin sheath around the nerves, which increases the speed and efficiency of electrical signal transmission in the nervous system.
What is maturation in the context of brain development?
Maturation refers to the gradual development and strengthening of neural pathways and brain structures, influenced by both biological processes and experiences.
In what sequence do myelination and maturation occur in the brain?
Myelination and maturation proceed from the lower and inner parts of the brain to the cortex and from the back to the prefrontal cortex.
Which part of the brain matures before the areas responsible for planning and impulse control?
the limbic system (involved in fear, anxiety, and intense emotions)
What does full functioning of the cortex require?
maturation and experience beyond the teen years.
What drives teens to seek excitement and pleasure?
the desire for excitement and pleasure, especially when in social situations with peers.
What is the normal sequence of brain maturation during adolescence?
The limbic system matures first during puberty, followed by the prefrontal cortex, leading to heightened emotional responses.
how does the maturation of the limbic system affect behavior?
it makes intense sensations compelling (such as loud music or fast driving)
How does the sequence of brain maturation affect adolescent behavior?
it results in emotions dominating behavior for about a decade
What happens to the brains reward centers during adolescence?
The brain’s reward centers become more active than cautionary areas, especially in social situations with peers.
What impact does the brain maturation have on adolescent decision making?
Adolescents are prone to quick reactions without considering consequences, driven by their powerful emotions during this developmental stage
How did girls perceive menarche two generations ago?
was often traumatic
how do girls react to menarche today?
surprised with a mix of positive and negative emotions
what influences a girls reaction to menarche?
prior knowledge and support from family members
-> in turn: influenced by cultural attitudes towards puberty and sexuality
how do boys typically feel about spermache?
mixed feelings because no one spoke to them about their physical changes before that
How do many tribal and village societies recognize the onset of puberty?
They celebrate it with an initiation ceremony, marking a significant change in privilege and responsibility.
What do young people in tribal and village cultures understand about reaching puberty?
they know that reaching puberty is a significant milestone in their culture
How do Western societies differ in recognizing the transition from childhood to adolescence?
Western societies grant little formal recognition to the movement from childhood to adolescence or from adolescence to adulthood.
what is puberty related to?
a rise in intensity of parent-child conflict and to fluctuations between positive and negative parent-child interaction
-> persists into middle adolescence
What is psychological distancing?
may be a modern substitute for physical departure from the family
what do parents and adolescents often argue over?
the young persons readiness for new responsibilities (driving, dating, curfews, etc.)
How do adolescents moods compare to those of school-age children and adults?
adolescents report less favorable moods
How do the moods of younger adolescents (12-16 years old) differ from those of older adolescents and adults?
Younger adolescents have less stable moods, often shifting between cheerful and sad.
What are high points for adolescents in terms of mood swings?
times spent with peers and in self-chosen
leisure activities.
What are low points for adolescents in terms of mood swings?
in adult-structured settings—class, job, and religious services.
What is the body image?
a persons idea of how his or her body looks
how many adolescents are happy with their bodies?
few
what is document worldwide when it comes to the perception of girls regarding their bodies?
unhappiness with appearance - especially weight
What does the arrival of puberty bring with it?
new health issues related to the young persons efforts to meet physical and psychological needs
what becomes important as adolescents attain greater autonomy?
their personal decision making (in health as well as other areas)
can health concerns be traced to a single cause?
no
what contributes to health concerns?
biological, psychological, family, peer, and cultural factors jointly contribute
what does rapid growth leads to?
dramatic increase in nutritional requirements
-> at time where diets of many young people are the poorest
what are adolescents most likely to concerning food?
to skip breakfast, eat on the run or consume empty calories
What is an eating disorder?
“A persistent disturbance of eating or eating-related behaviour that results in the altered consumption or absorption of food and that significantly impairs physical health or psychosocial functioning”
Who is high at risk for eating problems?
girls who reach puberty early and who are dissatisfied with their body image
what are strong predictors of an eating disorder in adolescence?
body dissatisfaction and severe dieting
What types of eating disorders are there according to the DSM-V?
− Pica (eating of non-nutritive, non-food substances on a persistent basis)
− Rumination disorder
− Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder
− Anorexia nervosa
− Bulimia nervosa
− Binge-eating disorder
− Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder (OSFED)
are the types of eating disorder associated with the same symptoms?
no, with different but sometimes overlapping ones
What is anorexia nervosa?
A condition where individuals avoid food, severely restrict intake, or eat very small quantities of specific foods.
What behavior is common among those with anorexia nervosa?
repeatedly weighing themselves
how do individuals with anorexia perceive their body image?
They may see themselves as overweight even when dangerously underweight (body image distortion).
What is the mortality rate associated with anorexia nervosa?
bout 5 percent of individuals with anorexia eventually die from the disorder due to physical complications or suicide (APA, 2013).
What is bulimia nervosa?
A condition where individuals have recurrent episodes of eating unusually large amounts of food and feel a lack of control over their eating.
What behaviors typically follow binge-eating in bulimia nervosa?
Compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as forced vomiting, purging with laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise.
can people with bulimia nervosa maintain a normal weight?
Yes, individuals with bulimia nervosa may maintain a normal weight or be overweight.
When does bulimia nervosa typically appear?
typically appears in late adolescence
What leads to an increase in sex drive?
hormonal changes
What heavily influences adolescent sexuality?
the social context.
How many adolescents report getting information from parents about intercourse, pregnancy prevention, and STIs?
Only half of them
Where are adolescents likely to learn about sex if not from their parents?
They are likely to learn from friends, siblings, books, magazines, movies, TV, and the Internet.
What can be confusing for young people regarding sexuality?
one one hand: adults expressing disapproval of sex at young age and outside of marriage
one other hand: social environment praises sexual excitement, experimentation and promiscuity
What are sexually active adolescents at risk for?
sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
who has the highest rates of STIs?
young people from 15-24
What do adolescents know about HIV and AIDS, and how well are they informed about other STIs and protection methods?
Many adolescents are aware of basic facts about HIV and AIDS
BUT: limited understanding of other STIs, underestimate their own susceptibility, and are poorly informed about how to protect themselves.
what does drug-taking reflect?
reflects the sensation seeking of the teenage years
Why do many teenagers try alcohol, tobacco or marijuana?
adolescents live in drug-dependent cultural contexts
- adults relying on caffeine to stay alert
- cigarettes, alcohol for coping with daily hassles
- high rates of cigarettes/alcohol/drugs in TV shows
- doctors often prescribe medication to treat children problems
What do adolescents sometimes do when stressed?
they ‘self-medicate’
can adolescents who take drugs become psychologically healthy, sociable, curious young people later in life?
Yes, they are called occasional experimenters
Why should adolescent experimentation with drugs not be taken lightly?
Drugs impair perception and thought processes, and even a single heavy dose can cause permanent injury or death.
What are signs that a teenager has moved from substance use to substance abuse?
Regular drug use, requiring increased amounts for the same effect, transitioning to harder substances, and drug use interfering with daily responsibilities.
how can introducing drugs during adolescence affect the brain?
while the adolescent brain is still developing it can impair neurons and their connective networks
-> leading to profound, lasting consequences.
What are the risks for teenagers who use substances to cope with daily stress?
They fail to learn responsible decision-making and alternative coping skills, and may develop chronic anxiety, depression, and antisocial behavior.
What was the global prevalence of binge drinking episodes among adolescents aged 15-19 years in 2016?
It was 13.6%, with males at the highest risk (Global status report on alcohol and health 2018).
What is the most commonly used drug by adolescents, according to the World Drug Report 2020?
Cannabis, with about 4.7% of 15-16 year-olds using it at least once in 2018.
What are the risks associated with committing violent acts in adolescence?
It increases the likelihood of educational underachievement, injury, involvement in crime, or death, and was one of the leading causes of death among older adolescents in 2019 (WHO Global Health Estimates 2019).
What proportion of young people aged 10-19 globally have a mental disorder according to WHO (2021)?
One in seven young people in this age group has a mental disorder.
What are the leading causes of illness and disability among adolescents?
Depression, anxiety, and behavioural disorders.
What is the fourth leading cause of death among 15-19 year olds?
Suicide
What are the long-term consequences of failing to address adolescent mental health disorders?
it can impair physical and mental health into adulthood and limit the individual’s chances of leading a fulfilling life.
