Unit 1 Flashcards
What is a theory?
A theory is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explain, and predict behaviour.
What are theories vital for?
- They provide organising frameworks for our observation of people. They guide and give meaning to what we see.
- Theories are verified by research provide a sound basis for practical action.
how do theories differ from opinions and beliefs?
Theories are influenced by cultural values and beliefs but differ in an important way from opinions and beliefs because the existence of the theory depends on scientific verification.
Does the study of development provide an ultimate truth?
No
What does the continuous view of development suggest?
that development is a gradual process of augmenting the same type of skills present from the beginning
How does the continuous view describe the difference between immature and mature individuals?
the difference between immature and mature individuals is just a matter of how many skills they have or how complex those skills are
How are changes in development described, in the continuous view?
gradual and cumulative
What does the discontinuous view of development suggest?
that infants and children have unique ways of thinking, feeling and behaving, different from adults
According to the discontinuous view, how does development occur?
in distinct stages, with new ways of understanding and responding emerging at specific times
What is a key concept of the discontinuous view?
Development takes place in stages.
How can we define the stages from the discontinuous development?
qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development
In the discontinuous view, when do new behaviors and understanding emerge?
at specific times in life, as part of developmental stages
What do stage theorists assume?
that people everywhere follow the same sequence of development.
How has the field of human development changed over time?
it has become more aware that children and adults live in distinct contexts
How do contemporary theorists view development?
as shaped by many-layered and complex contexts
What factors do contemporary theorists consider on the personal side of development?
heredity and biological makeup
What factors do contemporary theorists consider on the environmental side of development?
immediate settings, like home, school and neighborhood, as well as remote circumstances like community resources & social values
How do people interact with the context in which they develop, according to contemporary theorists?
both affected by and contribute to the context of their development
What do contemporary theorists emphasize about culture in development?
cultural diversity and its impact on development
What does nature refer to in development?
Nature refers to the hereditary information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception
What does nurture encompass in development?
Nurture includes the complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth
How do theories view the roles of nature and nurture?
All theories grant roles to both, but vary in their emphasis. This affects how they explain individual differences
What is the concept of stability in developmental theories?
Stability theorists emphasize that individuals who are high or low in a characteristic will remain so later in life.
-> early experiences establish lifelong pattern of behavior
What is the plasticity view in developmental theories?
Plasticity theorists believe that development has substantial plasticity throughout life
-> open to change in response to influential experiences
What was widely assumed in the first half of the twentieth century?
that development stopped at adolescence
what are infancy, childhood, adulthood and aging each viewed as?
Infancy and childhood: periods of rapid transformation
adulthood: plateau
aging: period of decline
why is the average life expectancy increasing?
because of improvements in nutrition, sanitation and medical knowledge
What does the lifespan perspective contain?
it contains four assumptions about what development is
What are the four assumptions of the lifespan perspective?
Development is..
- Lifelong
- Multidimensional and multidirectional
- highly plastic
- affected by multiple interacting forces
What is the developmental systems perspective?
It views development as a perpetually ongoing process from conception to death, shaped by a complex network of biological, psychological, and social influences.
What does it mean that development is lifelong?
It means no single age period is supreme in its impact
-> events at any age can significantly affect future changes
Within each period, change occurs in three broad domains. Which ones?
- Physical
- Cognitive
- Emotional/Social
Are the 3 main domains of development distinct?
no, they overlap and interact with each other
What are the major periods of human development?
Prenatal (conception to birth)
Infancy and toddlerhood (birth - 2)
early childhood (2-6)
middle childhood (6-11 years)
adolescence (11-18)
early adulthood (18-40)
middle adulthood (40-65)
late adulthood (65 - death)
What does it mean that development is multidimensional?
it is influenced by an intricate blend of biological, psychological, and social forces, affecting various aspects of life
What does it mean that lifespan development is multidirectional?
it involves both growth and decline at different periods of life
Is development only about improved performance?
no, development is a joint expression of both improvement and decline
How does change occur within each domain of development?
change is multidirectional within each domain, meaning: different aspects of development may grow or decline
What forces affect the multidimensional nature of development?
biological, psychological and social forces
How is development multidirectional over time?
involves both, gains and losses in abilities throughout the lifespan
What does it mean that development is plastic?
individuals have the capacity for change and adaptation throughout their lifespan
how does plasticity change with age?
it tends to decrease gradually with age, as both the capacity for and opportunity for change are reduced.
-> varies greatly among individuals!
Which forces influence development?
biological, historical, social, and cultural
What are age-graded influences in development?
events strongly related to age, making them fairly predictable in timing and duration
E.g.: Puberty around 12-14
What are history-graded influences?
forces unique to a particular historical era, such as epidemics or wars
What does the history-graded influences explain?
why people born around the same time—called a cohort—tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times.
What are non normative influences?
events that are irregular: They happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable
What is resilience?
the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
What are the 2 psychoanalytic perspectives in developmental psychology?
Freuds psychosexual stage and erikson psychosocial stage
What is classical conditioning and who developed it?
John B. Watson.
- learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus to elicit a response
e.g.: Pavlov’s dogs salivating
What is operant conditioning and who developed it?
B. F. Skinner
- learning process where behavior is shaped by rewards (reinforcements) or punishments
e.g.: Skinner’s pigeons learning to peck a button for food
What is social learning theory and who developed it?
Albert Bandura
- people learn behaviors through observing and imitating others, as well as through rewards and punishments
e.g.: Bandura’s doll experiment
What are the stages of the cognitive-developmental theory and who invented it?
Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor (Birth - 2)
Preoperational (2-7)
Concrete operational (7-11)
Formal operational (11 years on)
What is the focus of the Sociocultural theory and who invented it?
Vygotsky
- focuses on how culture (values, beliefs, customs and skills) is transmitted to the next generation through social interaction, particularly through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgable members of society
What does Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development (ZDP) refer to?
it refers to the range of tasks that a child cannot yet perform independently but can accomplish with guidance from more knowledgeable others
What role does social interaction play in Vygotsky’s theory?
social interactions are crucial for children to acquire the thinking and behavior of their community’s culture
-> necessary for cognitive development
What are the 4 systems in the ecological system theory and who invented it?
Bronfenbrenner
- Microsystem
- Mesosystem
- Exosystem
- Macrosystem
What is the microsystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory?
activities and interaction patterns in the person’s immediate surroundings.
What is the mesosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory?
connections between microsystems.
What is the exosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory?
social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings.
What is the macrosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory?
cultural values, laws, customs, and resources.
Is the psychoanalytic perspective continues/discontinous, one course/many, nature/nurture?
- discontinuous, development takes place in stages
- one course, stages are universal
- both nature and nurture, early experiences set the course of later development
Is behaviorism and social learning theory continues/discontinous, one course/many, nature/nurture?
- continuous, involves and increases in learned behaviors
- many courses, reinforcement and models vary from person to person
- emphasis on nurture, development is result of conditioning (early and late experiences are important)
Is Piagets cognitive developmental theory continues/discontinous, one course/many, nature/nurture?
discontinuous, one course, both nature and nurture
Is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory continues/discontinous, one course/many, nature/nurture?
both, continuous and discontinuous, many courses, both nature and nurture
Is bronfenbrenner’S ecological systems theory continues/discontinous, one course/many, nature/nurture?
not specified, many courses, both nature and nurture
Is the lifespan perspective continues/discontinous, one course/many, nature/nurture?
both continuous and discontinuous, many courses, both nature and nurture
Which are the methods commonly used in research on human development?
- systematic observation
- self-reports
- clinical, or case study method
- ethnography
- general
Why do scientists studying human development need special research designs?
They need information on how participants change over time to answer developmental questions, requiring research designs that measure people at different ages.
Which two strategies are special development research strategies?
Longitudinal and cross-sectional designs.
What do developmental research designs extend?
They extend correlational and experimental approaches to include measurements at different ages.
What is the goal of developmental research designs?
To study changes in participants over time and how these changes relate to development.
Which designs are there for studying development?
Longitudinal, cross-sectional and sequential
