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AP Biology > Unit 2 - Cell Structure and Function > Flashcards

Unit 2 - Cell Structure and Function Flashcards

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1
Q

types of cells

A
  • prokaryotes
  • eukaryotes
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2
Q

prokaryotes

A
  • made up of bacteria
  • archaea extremophile (an organism that thrives under extreme conditions)
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3
Q

eukaryotes

A
  • mammals
  • plants
  • fungi
  • protists
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4
Q

prokaryote’s organelles

A
  • no membrane bound organelles
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5
Q

prokaryote’s DNA

A
  • free floating DNA
  • DNA is circular shaped
  • DNA is found in nucleoid
  • contains plasmids (extra circular pieces of DNA)
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6
Q

prokaryote’s cell wall

A
  • cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan
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7
Q

eukaryote’s organelles

A
  • has membrane bound organelles
  • contains mitochondria
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8
Q

eukaryote’s DNA

A
  • DNA found in nucleus
  • DNA is linear shaped
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9
Q

eukaryote’s cell wall

A
  • plant cell wall -> cellulose
  • fungi cell wall -> chitin
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10
Q

common structures between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

A
  • ribosomes - rRNA
  • cell (plasma) membrane
  • cytoplasm - cytosol
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11
Q

cytosol

A

the actual liquid portion of the cell

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12
Q

nucleus

A
  • DNA is found inside here
  • surrounded by a nuclear membrane
    • “pores” to allow things in and out
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13
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • function: intracellular transport
  • rough ER
  • smooth ER
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14
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • ribosomes are found here
  • ribosomes produce proteins for cell membrane / for outside cell
  • intracellular transport
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15
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • intracellular transport
  • synthesis of lipids
  • steroids (estrogen & testosterone)
  • detoxification
  • abundant in liver to breakdown toxins and drugs
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16
Q

ribosomes

A
  • synthesize proteins
  • found free floating / attached to rough ER
  • made up of rRNA (make proteins for membrane/outside cell)
  • free floating: makes proteins for inside the cell
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17
Q

golgi apparatus

A
  • finalize proteins to be exported to the cell membrane or out of the cell
    • “tertiary structure”
  • produces vesicles for transport **
  • produces lysosomes
  • cisternae
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18
Q

endomembrane system

A
  • nucleus produces mRNA to go to the ribosomes on the ER
  • the rough ER makes proteins then sends them to golgi to be exocytose (leave cell)
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19
Q

lysosome

A
  • hydrolysis: digesting using enzymes and water
  • apoptosis: programmed cell death (recycling of cellular material)
  • autophagy: digestion of worn out cell parts
  • immune cells (like a giant lysosome)
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20
Q

mitochondria

A
  • cell respiration: makes ATP
  • endosymbiotic theory: a cell engulfed a mitochondria
    -> it was not digested
    -> it made energy and received glucose
  • have their own ribosomes, DNA, self replicating
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21
Q

chloroplast

A
  • absorbs sunlight -> makes sugar
  • have their own ribosomes, DNA, self replicating
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22
Q

vacuole

A
  • storage: water, food, waste
  • tonoplast: membrane around the vacuole
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23
Q

endosymbiotic theory

A
  • the beginning of eukaryotic cells
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24
Q

cytoskeleton

A
  • microtubules
  • intermediate filaments
  • microfilaments
    • cilia
    • flagella (whip like tail)
  • structural support
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25
Q

peroxisome

A
  • break H2O2 -> H2O + O
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26
Q

centrioles

A
  • involved in cell reproduction
  • in animals
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27
Q

advantages of organelles

A
  • eukaryotic cells can grow larger than prokaryotes
    • able to compartmentalize
  • allows us to carry out lots of metabolic reactions
  • more complex organisms
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28
Q

what does the ability to compartmentalize mean

A
  • lots of reactions in separate places
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29
Q

surface area to volume ratio

A
  • the amount of surface area in a given volume

** larger ratio is better

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30
Q

surface area

A
  • sum of the area of all faces of an object
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31
Q

formula for surface area of a cube

A

6a^2

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32
Q

why is a large surface area to volume a good thing for cells

A
  • most efficient diffusion of nutrients/wastes

ex: CO2, O2

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33
Q

how do cells increase surface area?

A
  • cell membrane has folds
  • in blood cells, the dent increases surface area so more O2 diffusion
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34
Q

what are structural adaptations that increase surface area to volume ratio

A
  • plants have root hairs
    • increase surface area to absorb nutrients
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35
Q

desert hare structural adaptations

A
  • large ears -> cool rabbit down (thermoregulation)
  • long legs -> cool down rabbit
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36
Q

snow shoe hare

A
  • small ears -> less exposure so cold air keeps heat in
  • shorter legs -> keeps heat in
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37
Q

cell membrane

A
  • regulates what goes into and out of the cell
  • AKA phospholipid bilayer, plasma membrane
  • semipermeable
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38
Q

semipermeable

A
  • allows somethings to pass, but not all
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39
Q

how does a cell membrane regulate what goes in and out

A
  • polarity
    • head = polar -> hydrophilic
    • tails = nonpolar -> hydrophobic
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40
Q

why is the cell membrane called a bilayer

A
  • orientation of the phospholipids
  • hydrophobic tails do not want to be near water
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41
Q

fluid mosaic model

A
  • molecules in cell membrane move laterally (side to side) like a fluid
  • many molecules in the membrane (mosaic)
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42
Q

what kind of molecules can pass through a nonpolar region with no resistance

A
  • sterols/steroids
  • CO2, O2
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43
Q

what kind of molecules cannot pass through a nonpolar region with no resistance

A
  • polar molecules
  • charged molecules
  • large molecules
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44
Q

cell membrane: cholesterol

A
  • maintains fluidity of cell membrane
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45
Q

cell membrane: integral protein

A
  • transport protein
    ex: aquaporin - transport of water
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46
Q

cell membrane: peripheral proteins

A
  • cell signaling
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47
Q

cell membrane: glycoprotein or glycolipid

A
  • cell recognition –> “immune system”
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48
Q

the smaller the cell, the ______ the SA:V ratio

A

larger

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49
Q

why are all cells pretty much the same size?

A
  • small cells achieve a large surface area to volume ratio so that nutrients and wastes can diffuse efficiently
  • there is also less distance for molecules to travel within a small cell so that cellular functions occur more quickly
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50
Q

what are three characteristics that increase SA:V ratio

A
  • small size of the cell
  • infoldings of membranes
  • organelles
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51
Q

endosymbiosis

A
  • symbiotic relationships within the cell
  • theory of how eukaryotes formed
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52
Q

proof of the theory of endosymbiosis

A
  • double membranes of organelles
  • mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA
  • mitochondria and chloroplasts self replicate
  • the ribosomes in mitochondria and chloroplasts are more similar to the ribosomes of prok than euk
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53
Q

in prokaryotic cells, almost all reactions occur on the cell membrane

A
  • which does NOT allow for specialization
  • unlike eukaryotic, which has organelles
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54
Q

mitochondria and chloroplasts are no longer self sufficient; they need..

A

enzymes provided in the cell’s cytoplasm

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55
Q

does DNA leave the nucleus

A
  • no, it sends a copy via RNA
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56
Q

nucleolus/nucleoli

A
  • rRNA is synthesized here
  • this RNA makes up ribosomes
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57
Q

bound ribosomes

A
  • bonded to organelles
  • synthesize proteins for export (secretion) from the cell or for use in lysosomes
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58
Q

free ribosomes

A
  • floating in the cytoplasms
  • synthesize proteins mostly for use within the cell
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59
Q

are ribosomes membrane bound

A
  • no, they are NOT membrane bounded; therefore, they are found in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes
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60
Q

ribosomes carry out

A

translation (protein synthesis)

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61
Q

purpose of the endomembrane system

A
  • to transport, package, and export proteins destined for use outside that particular cell
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62
Q

autophagy and apoptosis

A
  • involved in the destruction of worn out or unneeded structures

ex:
- destruction of worn out red cells or mitochondria
- disappearance of a tadpole’s tail

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63
Q

contractile vacuoles

A
  • in protists to pump out excess water
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64
Q

central vacuoles

A

for storage of starch in plant cells

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65
Q

peroxisome

A
  • single membrane
  • breaks down fatty acids
  • detoxes alcohol in liver
  • as the break down compounds, they produce H2O2
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66
Q

membrane fluidity

A
  • as fluid as salad oil
  • the only thing holding the cell membrane together is the fact that the interior and exterior are exposed to water
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67
Q

how does the membrane remain fluid and resist freezing?

A
  • amount of unsaturated fatty acids (these have kinks that prevent molecules from packing together)
  • amount of cholesterol
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68
Q

simple diffusion

A
  • the passive movement of particles from higher to lower concentration
  • when a hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecule passes between the molecules of the lipid bilayer
  • no energy is needed
69
Q

how does water get across the cell membrane

A

facilitated diffusion (no energy)
- protein channels allow for the exchange of polar molecules

70
Q

aquaporin

A
  • the protein channel that allows water to pass across the cell membrane via facilitated diffusion
71
Q

larger molecules (proteins, carbs) are carried across membrane how

A

by transport proteins via active transport which includes carrier proteins

72
Q

passive transport

A
  • movement down a concentration gradient
  • no ATP needed
  • diffusion of small, nonpolar molecules via simple diffusion
  • diffusion of polar substances through channels via facilitated diffusion
73
Q

transportation of large molecules

A
  • exocytosis
  • endocytosis
  • protein pumps
74
Q

what do all cells need to live?

A
  • all cells need nutrients
    ex: O2, Na+, K+
  • need to remove wastes
    ex: CO2
75
Q

permeable

A

allows substances to enter or exit the cell

76
Q

concentration gradient

A

amount of molecules on one side of a membrane vs the other

77
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of H2O
- passive transport

78
Q

what are proteins used for in facilitated diffusion

A

to move larger or charged molecules across a membrane
- ex: integral protein

79
Q

is facilitated diffusion passive or active transport

A

passive transport

80
Q

active transport

A
  • energy is used
    • ATP or electron gradient
  • moving from low [ ] to high [ ]
    ex: “pump”, permeases
81
Q

Na+/K+ pump

A

3 Na+ leave and 2 K+ enter the cell
- active transport

82
Q

endocytosis

A

bringing in larger molecules

  • 2 Types: pinocytosis, phagocytosis
83
Q

pinocytosis

A

cell drinking

(type of endocytosis)

84
Q

phagocytosis

A

cell eating

(type of endocytosis)

85
Q

exocytosis

A

releasing larger molecules

86
Q

tonicity

A
  • waters ability to move to solutions with higher solute concentration
87
Q

isotonic

A
  • the solute concentration is equal in and out of the cell
  • no NET movement of water
88
Q

hypotonic

A
  • more water in solution, less solute
  • causes cell to burst/lyse
89
Q

plant cells in hypotonic solution

A
  • they will not burst due to cell wall
  • they will become turgid: H2O pushing on the wall
90
Q

animal cells in hypotonic solution

A
  • cytolysis
91
Q

water flows towards what type of solution

A

hypertonic solution

92
Q

hypertonic

A
  • more solute, less H2O in solution
93
Q

hypertonic solution: plant cells

A
  • cell membrane gets plasmolyzed (shrinks)
94
Q

hypertonic solution: animal cells

A
  • crenation (shrivels up)
95
Q

water flow in terms of concentration of solute

A

water flows from areas of low concentration of solutes to high concentration of solute

96
Q

osmoregulation

A
  • management of the body’s water and solute concentration
  • conformer vs regulator
97
Q

paramecium

A
  • freshwater invertebrate
  • contractile vacuoles
  • uses ATP
  • H+ pumped into vacuole
  • results in hypertonic cell
  • H2O flows in
  • H2O gets pumped out
98
Q

most marine (salt) invertebrates are

A

isotonic to their environment - conformers

99
Q

freshwater organisms must be

A

regulators

100
Q

freshwater fish osmoregulation

A
  • actively transport ions (Na+) into their gills
  • urine: dilute + a lot
101
Q

saltwater fish osmoregulation

A
  • actively transport ions (Na+) out of them through gills
  • urine: concentrated, little
102
Q

humans osmoregulation

A
  • ADH
  • creates aquaporins in the kidneys
  • allows for water to be reabsorbed by body
103
Q

water potential

A
  • a measure of how likely water will move from one solution to another
104
Q

what are two variables that affect osmosis and the movement of water?

A
  • pressure
  • amount of solute (NaCl, sugar)
105
Q

pressure potential

A
  • a physical force

** in an open container, pressure = 0 (no added pressure)

106
Q

solute potential

A
  • amount of solute in a solution
  • reason H2O moves to high solute concentration because it is attracted to it
107
Q

what is the solute potential of distilled water

A
  • 0
  • this is the highest value bc it contains NO SOLUTE
  • adding solutes decreases solute potential
108
Q

total water potential in a plant cell

A
  • plant cells have a cell wall that exerts pressure
109
Q

solute potential formula

A

-iCRT

110
Q

solute potential: i

A

ionization constant
- how many molecules does it dissociate into in water

111
Q

solute potential: C

A
  • molar concentration
  • usually given to you
112
Q

solute potential: R

A
  • pressure constant
  • 0.0831 bars
113
Q

solute potential: T

A
  • temperature in kelvin
114
Q

what type of water potential does water flow towards

A
  • water flows towards the hypertonic, which means towards the more negative water potential
115
Q

transpiration: water potential

A
  • the decrease in water potential as you move up has more to do with the pressure than the solute concentration
  • water will flow from higher water potential to lower water potential, and therefore move up from the roots to the leaves to the atmosphere
116
Q

prokaryotes

A
  • single celled organisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
117
Q

prokaryotes reproduce how

A

asexually through binary fission, simpler process than eukaryotic cell division

118
Q

what is meant by membrane bound organelles

A
  • each of these organelles is enclosed by its own membrane
  • this allows the organelles to maintain a controlled internal environment that is distinct from the rest of the cell
  • membrane regulates what enters and exits the organelle
119
Q

nucleoid in prokaryotes

A

a region in the cytoplasm where the cell’s genetic material (DNA) is located, DNA is free floating in the cell

120
Q

nucleus is enclosed by

A

nuclear envelope: double membrane
- outer membrane is continuous with ER which allows for communication and material exchange between these structures

121
Q

nucleus: chromatin

A
  • DNA combines with proteins to form this; then, it’s shaped into chromosomes
122
Q

nucleolus

A

dense, spherical structure; site of rRNA rsynthesis and assembly of ribosomes

123
Q

rRNA

A

ribosomal RNA

124
Q

how does the nucleus control cellular activities

A

by directing protein synthesis

125
Q

nucleus: transcription

A
  • DNA is transcribed into mRNA which then exits through the nuclear pores and travels to ribosomes to become proteins
126
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

a network of membranes that plays a key role in the transport, production, and processing of proteins and lipids

127
Q

what is continuous with the nuclear envelope

A

rough endoplasmic reticulum

128
Q

what proteins do rough ER ribosomes synthesize

A
  • those that will be secreted from the cell or incorporated into the cell membrane
129
Q

rough ER: post protein synthesis

A
  • proteins are packaged into vesicles and sent to golgi for further processing and distribution
130
Q

smooth ER: lipid synthesis

A
  • includes phospholipids and steroids (ex: cholesterol)
131
Q

smooth ER: detoxification

A
  • in liver cells, smooth ER contains enzymes that detox harmful substances
132
Q

smooth ER: calcium storage

A
  • in muscle cells, smooth ER stores Ca+2 ions that are essential for muscle contraction
133
Q

ribosomes: function

A
  • site of protein synthesis
  • translate genetic info into mRNA into proteins
134
Q

are ribosomes found in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells?

A

both!

135
Q

ribosomes: protein synthesis

A

ribosomes do the translation; ribosomes read mRNA sequence and translate into chain of amino acids

135
Q

free floating ribosomes

A
  • float freely in the cytoplasm
  • synthesizes proteins for function within the cytoplasm / nucleus / mitochondria
136
Q

prokaryotic + eukaryotic ribosomes: antibiotics

A
  • antibiotics fighting bacterial infections often work by interfering with the prokaryotic ribosomes, which differ enough from eukaryotic ribosomes that the drugs don’t harm human cells
137
Q

golgi apparatus consists of

A

series of folded membrane bound sacs called cisternae

138
Q

cisternae

A

folded membrane bound sacs

139
Q

golgi apparatus: cis face

A
  • side closest to the rough ER; receives the newly synthesized proteins and lipids from the ER
140
Q

golgi apparatus: trans face

A
  • side oriented towards plasma membrane; responsible for exporting processed materials to their final destination
141
Q

golgi apparatus: functions

A
  • synthesizes lysosomes
  • as proteins pass through, several modifications occur that can affect tertiary structure (adding carbohydrate or phosphate groups can affect folding and function)
142
Q

golgi apparatus: folding assistance

A
  • chaperone proteins ensure that proteins achieve their correct tertiary structures
143
Q

golgi apparatus: vesicle formation

A
  • when the membrane bends inwards and pinches off to create small sacs that carry proteins and lipids
  • these isolate substances without interfering with other cellular activities
144
Q

endomembrane system

A

complex system of membranes within eukaryotic cells that carries out synthesis, transport, modification and degradation of proteins and lipids

145
Q

what does the endomembrane system include

A

nucleus, ER, golgi apparatus, vesicles, lysosomes

146
Q

endomembrane system: nucleus

A
  • holds DNA and controls cellular activities; mRNA
147
Q

endomembrane system: E.R.

A

rough -> protein synthesis

smooth -> lipid synthesis

148
Q

endomembrane system: golgi apparatus

A
  • modifies and packages proteins and lipids for transport
149
Q

endomembrane system: vesicles

A

small sacs that carry materials between organelles or to the cell membrane for secretion

150
Q

endomembrane system: lysosomes

A
  • break down waste and recycle materials
151
Q

endomembrane system: exocytosed

A

vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and expel contents to outside the cell

152
Q

lysosomes

A

specialized organelles that break down wastes or cellular debris

153
Q

lysosomes: structure

A
  • surrounded by a membrane that isolates its contents from the rest of the cell
  • contains hydrolytic enzymes, powerful proteins, that can break down different types of macromolecules
154
Q

what do lysosomes digest

A

they digest both incoming substances (bacteria) & worn out organelles (autophagy)

155
Q

lysosomes: immune cells

A

in immune cells, lysosomes help destroy pathogens that are engulfed by the cell

156
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

157
Q

mitochondria: structure

A
  • double membrane; inner is folded into structures called cristae which increase surface area for energy production
158
Q

cristae

A

the inner membrane folds of mitochondria

  • increases surface area
159
Q

mitochondrial matrix

A

the space inside the inner membrane where metabolic reactions occur

160
Q

mitochondria: endosymbiotic theory

A
  • they have their own ribosomes and DNA
  • allows them to produce some proteins they need without the help of nucleus
  • proof for endosymbiotic theory
161
Q

advantages of organelles: compartmentalize

A

allows functions to happen in separate places without interference

162
Q

advantages of organelles: growth

A

eukaryotic cells can grow larger than prokaryotic cells

163
Q

cytoskeleton

A

structural support

164
Q

endosymbiotic theory suggests

A
  • that the first eukaryotic cell emerged from a prokaryote
165
Q

endosymbiotic theory

A

prokaryote (bacteria) swallowed smaller bacteria that were capable of making energy (mitochondria/chloroplasts)

  • instead of digesting, they formed a partnership as the bacteria provided energy for the cell
  • overtime, the bacteria became a permanent part of the cell and transformed into first eukaryotic cell
166
Q

benefits of high surface area to volume ratio

A
  • faster diffusion: more efficient exchange of gases
  • less distance for transport
  • cell signaling: high surface area allows for more receptors on the cell membrane
167
Q

how do plants increase surface area

A

they have root hairs

168
Q
A

AP Biology (5 decks)

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