Unit 2 Biopsychology Flashcards
Nature and Nurture Issue
Genes and experience allow for the development of psychological traits. Personality arises from the interaction of nature AND nurture.
Natural Selection
Inherited traits enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to the succeeding generations.
Eugenics
Selective breeding of humans to promote certain “positive” characteristics and eliminate “negative” characteristics.
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
Mutation
Random errors in gene replication that leads to a change.
Heredity
Genetic or predisposed characteristic that is transferred from parents to offspring, influencing physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes.
Family Studies
Search for traits and diseases that tend to be shared by family members.
Twin Studies
Assess effects of shared genes and environments in twins.
Adoption Studies
Assess the effects of environment in adopted children and their biological parents.
Genetic Predisposition
Nervous System
Communication network in the body that consists of all the nerve cells of the CNS and PNS.
Central Nervous System
Includes brain and spinal cord. “Decision maker.”
Peripheral Nervous System
Gathers information and transmits CNS decisions to other body parts.
Nerves
Electrical cables from from bundles of axons. They link the CNS with the body’s sensory receptors, muscles, and glands.
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
Carry incoming information from the skin/tissues and sensor receptors to the brain and spinal cord for processing.
Motor (Efferent) Neurons
Cary instructions from the CNS to the body’s muscles and glands to produce a reaction to stimulus.
Interneurons
Communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs.
Somatic Nervous System
Part of PNS that enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
Automatic Nervous System
Part of PNS that controls involuntary movement, such as your heart beating.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Part of autonomic system that arouses and expends energy. Fight, flight, or freeze.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Part of autonomic system that calms the body and conserves energy. Breed, feed, rest, digest. Works with sympathetic to maintain homeostasis.
Spinal Cord
Bridge between the brain and the PNS.Fibers send up sensory information and then send back motor-control information.
Reflex
Automatic responses to stimuli.
Reflex Arc
Spinal reflex pathway. Stimulus causes sensory neurons to emit signals to the CNS with inter neurons, and a response is carried out through motor neurons.
Neuron
A nerve cell. The basic building block of the nervous system.
Cell Body
Part of neuron that contains the nucleus.
Dendrites
Busy fibers on neruons that integrate information, conducting impulses toward the cell body.
Axon
Segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
Terminal Branches
At the bottom of the neuron, forms junctions with other cells.
Myelin Sheath
Layer of fatty tissue around axons that insulates and speeds up impulses.
Multiple Sclerosis
Auto-immune disease, attacks the myelin (out coating of the nerve).
Glial Cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.
Action Potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
Ions
Electrically charged atoms.
Resisting Potential
Positive-outside/negative-inside state between and axon’s membrane and a resting axon’s fluid interior.
Depolarization
Loss of the inside/outside charge difference between an axon’s membrande and fluid.
Excitatory
Most neural signals “push a neuron’s accelerator.”
Inhibitory
Some neural signals “push a neuron’s brake.”
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
Refractory Period
In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.
All-or-None Response
A neuron’s reaction of either firing or not firing.
Reuptake
A neurotransmitter’s re-absorption by the sending neuron.
Synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
Synaptic Gap (Cleft)
The tiny gap at the synapse.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps. They travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, influencing the response of that neuron.
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory.
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.
Nonrepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
Neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal.
GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)
Major inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Glutamate
Major excitatory neurotransitter; involved in memory.
Endorphins
Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pressure.
Substance P
Involved in pain perception and immune response.
Myasthenia Gravis
Auto-immune neuromuscular disease in which muscles cannot contract, attacks receptor sites.
Agonist
Molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.
Antagonist
Molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.
Endocrine System
Body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
Hormone that increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing energy to power fight or flight response.
Pituitary Gland
Small structure in the core of the brain, controlled by the hypothalamus. Releases hormones including growth hormones that stimulate physical development, as well as oxytocin.
Oxytocin
Neural Communication
Reputake Inhibitors
Psychoactive Drug
Chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods.
Depressants
Drugs like alcohol, tranquilizers, and opioids that calm neural activity and slow body functions.
Alcohol
Depressant that acts as a disinhibitor to slow brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions. (Slows sympathetic Nervous system activity).
Tolerance
Developed through continued use of alcohol or other drugs. Brain chemistry adapts to offset the drug effect.
Addiction
Caused by increasing doses of many psychoactive drugs, the user craves the drug and struggles to withdraw from it.
Opioids
Depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
Withdrawl
Unpleasant mental or physical reactions when attempting to end use.
Heroin
Depressant that causes pain relief, but also depression and a loss of endorphin function.
Stimulants
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
Cocaine
Powerfully addictive stimulant that depletes the brain’s supply of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.
Hallucinogens
Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
Mirijuana
Contains THC and amplifies sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells. Effects may linger for over a week.
Caffiene
Stimulant that increases alertness and wakefulness but may cause anxiety, and insomnia.
Biological Psychology
Study of the links between biological and psychological processes.
Biopsychosocial Approach
Integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.
Neuroplasticity
Brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by building new pathways based on experience.
Lesion
Tissue destruction that may occur naturally, during surgery, or experimentally.
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
Amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. Waves measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
fMRI (Functional MRI)
Technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.
Brainstem
Brain’s innermost region, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull. Responsible for automatic survival functions.
Medulla
Brainstem’s base that controls heartbeat and breathing.
Contralateral Hemispheric Organization
Nerves to and from each side of the brain connect with the body’s opposite side.
Thalamus
Forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem. Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Reticular Activating System
Governs nerve network inside the brain stem. Extends from the spinal cord to the thalamus, filtering incoming stimuli and relaying important information to other brain areas.
Cerebellum
Extends from the rear of the brainstem, processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, and enables nonverbal learning and memory.
Limbic System
Located mostly in the forebrain and associated with emotions and drives. Includes amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland.
Amygdala
Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion.
Hypothalamus
Limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus that directs maintenance activities and helps govern the endocrine system. Linked to emotion and reward.
Hippocampus
In the limbic system, helps process explicit memories (facts and events) for storage.
Cerebral Cortex
Intricate fabrics of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center.
Cortex Specialization
Frontal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex just behind the forehead. Enables linguistic processing, muscle movement, and executive functioning.
Parietal Lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex at the top of the head. Receives sensory input for touch and body position.
Occipital Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head, receives information from visual fields.
Temporal Lobes
Portion of cerebral cortex above the ears. Receives information from the opposite ear and enable language processing.
Motor Cortex
A cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
Somatosensory Cortex
Cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal Lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
Association Areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; involved in higher mental functions such as learning, thinking, remembering, and speaking.
Prefrontal Cortex
Forward part of frontal lobes, enables judgement, planning, social interaction, new memories.
Reward Centers
Lobes of Cortex
Corpus Callosum
Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain Hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Split Brain
Condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.
Conciousness
Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Blindsight
A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.
Sleep
A periodic, natural loss of consciousness.
Circadian Rhythm
Biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle.
REM (Paradoxical) Sleep
Rapid Eye Movement, recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active.
NREM Sleep (Based on EEG Patterns)
Non-Rapid Eye Movement, encompasses all sleep stages except for REM.
N1 “Stage 1”
N2 “Stage 2”
N3 “Stage 3”
Hallucinations
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
Hypnagogic (Hypnic) Sensations
Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling/floating, while transitioning to sleep.
Melatonin
Sleep inducing hormone in the hypothalamus.
Wakefulness
Jet Lag
Shift Work
Restoration (Sleep)
Ghrelin
Hunger-arousing hormone, may be increased by not getting enough sleep.
Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling/staying asleep.
Narcolepsy
Sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. May lapse directly into REM sleep.
Sleep Apnea
Sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
Somnambulism
Repeated episodes of complex motor behavior. (Sleep walking).
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
Sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur; instead twitching, talking, kicking, or punching may occur.
Dreams and Dream Theories
Sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.
Information-Processing Theory (Consolidation Theory)
Dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories.
Activation-Synthesis Theory
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories.
REM Rebound
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
Sensation (Bottom-Up Processing)
The physical input of information that causes a reaction. Starts in peripheral nervous system and goes to central nervous system.
Transduction
Transfer of physical external stimuli into an electrical current. Occurs on skin receptors, taste buds, etc.
Top-Down Processing
Experiences affect predictions, altering what your thoughts are.
Absolute Threshold
Minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to be detected 50% of the time. Example: How much sugar needs to go in a gallon of water to taste it?
Sensory Adaptation
Physical stimuli is very noticeable at first, but after a few minutes your brain adapts and the stimuli is no longer noticeable.
Difference Threshold
Slightest amount needed to detect the difference between two stimuli. Example: How much increase in volume is noticeable?
Weber’s Law
The difference threshold is a constant. Intensity needed to detect difference is proportional to initial. You will notice easier starting small than you will starting large.
Cornea
Clear, dome shaped outer layer of the eye.
Pupil
Hole in the eye that does not reflect light.
Iris
Muscle that opens and closes depending on the environment.
Lens
Moves to focus the light onto your retina.
Retina
Where transduction occurs in the eyeball.
Fovea
Central point of focus in your eyeball.
Rods
Used to detect quantity of light. More rods in peripheral vision.
Cones
Used to detect color/qualities of light.
Optic Nerve
Nerve that carries neural impulse from the eye to the brain.
Blind Spot
Anything that shows up on your blind spot, you cannot see.
Feature Detectors
Nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape or movement.
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
Cones are responsive to different wavelengths of light that will induce transduction. (Red/Long, Green/Medium, and Blue/Short)
Color Blindness
Deficiency of defective number of cones for different colors.
Opponent-Process Theory
Further up in the optic nerve, neurons work in pairs to process color vision signals. 3 sets of opposing pairs (Red-Green, Blue-Yellow, White-Black). If one is on, the other is off, so human’s cannot perceive a red-ish green. This explains after image effect.
Afterimage Effect
If you stare at one color then look at a white surface, you will see the opposite color.
Wavelength
The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.
Amplitude
Light or sound wave’s height that determines intensity/energy.
Accommodation
Process in which the lens adjusts to focus.
Myopia
Nearsightedness, focal point is before the retina.
Ganglion Cells
Axons tie together to form optic nerve.
Prosopagnosia
Face blindness. The inability to identify faces.
Farsightedness
Focal point is beyond the retina.
Light/Dark Adapatation
Red, Green, Blue Cones
Red-Green, Blue-Yellow, Black-White Cells
Dichromatism
Monochromatism
Loudness
Determined by amplitude of sound waves.
Pitch
Determined by frequency. A tone’s experienced highness or lowness.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Most common form off hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve.
Conduction Hearing Loss
Caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
Place Theory (Place Coding)
Links the pitch we hear with the place where cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. Explains high pitched sounds, but not low.
Frequency Theory (Temporal Coding)
The brain reads pitch by monitoring the frequency of neural impulse traveling up the auditory nerve. Frequency = # of times neuron fires. BUT volley principle needs to be true.
Volley Principle
Neurons can alternate firing to achieve a combined frequency above 1000 waves per second.
Sound
The vibration of air.
Pitch Perception
Sound Localization
Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. This way our brain can compute a sound’s location.
Hearing Loss
Conductive or sensorineural. Conductive: Damage to mechanical system (eardrum/middle bones). Sensorineural: Damage to cell receptors or auditory nerve.
Touch
Tactile sense that promotes well-being.
Pain
Body’s way of telling you something is wrong, enhances self-awareness, arouses other’s empathy, and promotes social connections.
Warm/Cold Pressure Receptors
Gate-Control Theory
The spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pas to the brain. Opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
Phantom Limb Sensations
Body lacks normal sensory input from a missing limb, the brain may misinterpret or amplify CNS activity.
Gustation
Sense of taste. Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, oleogustus
Supertasters
People with more taste buds who can experience intense tastes.
Pheromones
Chemical messengers, some serve as sexual attractants.
Kinesthesis
Movement sense, system for sensing the position and movement of body parts.
Vestibular Sense
Enables our body’s sense of balance.
Semicircular Canals
Sensory Interaction
Principle that one sense may influence another.
Synesthesia
Stimulation of one sense triggers the experience of another.
Smell
Olfaction (sense of smell).
Olfactory System
Sense of smell
Taste Receptors
Taste buds in mouth.
Chemical Senses
Taste and smell
Leptin
Broca’s Area
Wernicke’s Area
Aphasia
Audition
The sense or act of hearing.
Auditory Nerve
Carries neural messages to thalamus then to auditory cortex in temporal lobes.
