Unit 0 Flashcards
Hindsight Bias
The “I knew it all along” phenomenon. The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Peer Reviewers
Scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Falsifability
Possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.
Operational Definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
Case Study
A non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Naturalistic Observation
A non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Survey
A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
Social Desirablity Bias
Bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.
Self-report Bias
Bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.
Sampling Bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
Convenience Sampling
Collecting research from a group that is readily available.
Random Sample
Fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Representative Sampling
Group that represents an entire population.
Generalizing Population
Use a representative, random sample.
Correlation
The relationship between two or more variables.
Spurious/Illusory Correlation
A perceived relationship between two or more variables that does not actually exist.
Positive Correlation
As one variable increases, so does the other. Line going upwards in scatter plot, value close to +1.
Negative Correlation
As one variable decreases, so does the other. Line going downwards in scatter plot, value close to -1.
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to 1).
Variable
Characteristic or value used in an experiment that can vary and is ethical to measure.
Scatter Plot
Graph where two values are plotted to reveal correlation.
Directionality Problem
Correlation research cannot tell us which variable is cause and which is effect.
Third Variable Problem
Statistical issue when a third variable effects two other variables, causing them to appear to have a casual relationship when they do not.
Regression Toward the Mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to regress (fall back) toward the average.
Experimental Group
The group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Experiment
Research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process.
Control Group
The group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison from evaluating the effect of treatment.
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the groups.
Single-Blind Procedure
An experimental group in which the participants are ignorant about whether they have received treatment or a placebo.
Double-Blind Procedure
Experimental procedure in which both the research participants have received treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Placebo
A pseudo-treatment.
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an insert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Confounding variable
Factors other than those being studied that might influence a study’s result or interpretation.
Experimenter Bias
Bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs.
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
Correlational Research
Non-experimental method that describes the relationship between two or more variables.
Validity
The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what is supposed to.
Causation-Correlation
Correlation does NOT equal causation, but
Quantitative Research
Relies on quantifiable, numerical data.
Likert Scale
Questionnaire responses that fall on a continuum (“Strongly agree –> Strongly disagree”).
Structured Interviews
Series of predetermined questions to all interviewees in a consistent order.
Qualitative Research
Relies on in-depth, narrative data not translated into numbers.
Confederates
People who pretend to be participants but are actually part of the experiment.
Informed Consent
Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Informed Assent
Informed consent for children- cannot legally give consent until 18.
Deception
Researcher intentionally misleads or withholds information from subjects to manipulate their behavior.
Debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
Institutional Review Boards
At least 5 people, must include a scientist, a non-scientist, and a community representative who screen research proposals to protect human well-being.
Diversity of Participation
A diverse sample can reflect more general groups.
Research Ethics
Moral principles that guide researchers when conducting studies.
Animal Research
Scientific study of animal behavior used to understand fundamental psychological processes and mechanisms that may also apply to humans.
Protection form Harm
Ethical principle that research participants or clients in therapy should not be subjected to any physical or psychological distress during a study.
Confidentiality
Expectation that patient/client/subject’s information will not be shared without consent.
Measure of Central Tendency
Single score that represents a whole set of scores.
Mean, Median, and Mode
Measures of central tendency.
Bimodal Distribution
Occurs when there are two frequently occuring scores.
Percentile Rank
Percentage of scores lower than the given score.
Skewed Distribution
A representation for scores that lack symmetry around their average value.
Variation
How similar or diverse the scores are.
Range
Gap between lowest and highest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean scores.
Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and few scores lie near the extremes.
Meta-Analysis
A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.
Statistical Significance
Statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied.
Effect Size
Strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.
Cultural Norms
Positive/Negative Skew
Generalizability
Representation
Anonymity of Data
Psychological Perspectives
Behavioral
Biological
Cognitive
Evolutionary
Humanistic
Psychodynamic/Analytical
Sociocultural
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to find/keep track of evidence that supports your belief instead of evidence that refutes it.
