unit 2 aos2 Flashcards
person perception
refers to the different mental processes used to understand and form impressions of other people. this can be determined directly or indirectly.
direct person perception
info provided from the person we are judging for example through observing them or interacting with them.
indirect person perception
through hearing about the person we are judging from another person or source, for example through a friend or reading about someone online
attributions (+2 types)
is an evaluation made about the causes of behaviour and the process of making this evaluation. attributions are categorised into two types: internal and external
internal (personal) attributions
occurs when we judge behaviour as being caused by something personal within an individual
external (situational) attributions
occurs when we determine the cause of a behaviour as resulting from the situational factors occuring outside the individual
3 steps in the cognitive process of attribution
observation of an outward act of behaviour, conscious determination or acknowledgement of the behaviour, attribute causes to this observed behaviour
step 1 in the cognitive process of attribution
a person sees someone running down a busy street
step 2 in the cognitive process of attribution
a person actively decides the behaviour they observed was someone running down a busy street
step 3 in the cognitive process of attribution
a person infers that the cause of the other person running is that they are disorganised and running late.
fundamental attribution error
refers to our tendency to explain other people’s behaviour in terms of internal factors, while ignoring possible external factors. Leads to cognitive bias and has an effect on how we percieve that individual as well.
the just world belief
refers to the belief that the world is a just place in which people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
actor observer bias
refers to our tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external or situational factors, yet attribute other’ behaviour to external factors. This is in comparison to other people
example of actor observer bias
if you fail an exam you may blame your failure on too many trick questions or an overcrowded exam room with too many distractions, but you might say Maria failed because she isn’t smart enough
self serving bias example
when the teacher hands back a test and they get a good result, it was because of their hard work. but if they got a bad result, it was because the questions were unfair.
attitudes
refer to an evaluation of something, such as a person, object, event or idea. An attitude can be positive, negative or neutral.
3 criteria for attitude formation
must be an evaluation of something, must be settled and stable, must be learnt through experience
The tri component model of attitudes (+ 3)
proposes that an attitude must have all three components present, interacting and contributing to the attitude. affective, behavioural, cognitive
affective component
refers to our emotions and intuitive feelings towards something, reflected in our attitude. EG: I like school
behavioural component
refers to our outward and observable actions that reflect our point of view about something EG: I try my best at school
cognitive component
refers to our thoughts and beliefs towards something. EG: I know working hard at school will help me get the results I need for my future
consistency of the components
many psychologists suggest that only the affective and cognitive components need to be present for an attitude to exist. behaviour may not align.
stereotyping
is a widely held belief and generalisation about a group. It is a generalisation that all members in that group will share the same characteristics, despite their individuality.
how can stereotyping be helpful (3)
They allow us to percieve others and make sense of the social world, can keep us safe, allows us to act socially responsibly
5 problems with stereotyping
leads to oversimplified and inaccurate judgements of individual people, mostly negative than positive, we tend to ignore a person’s individuality, they tend to be fixed and resistant to change, can lead to social stigma.
cognitive dissonance
is the psychological tension that occurs when our thoughts and feelings don’t align with our behaviour. this often occurs when we act in a way that contradicts our beliefs
what needs to be present for cognitive dissonance to occur (2)
if you were aware of the potential consequences and the inconsistency of your behaviour when you undertake the behaviour OR if you cannot justify why you performed the behaviour
2 ways to reduce cognitive dissonance
changing your thoughts to align with your behaviour OR changing your behaviour to align with your thoughts
cognitive bias
the unconscious, systematic tendencies to interpret info in a way that is neither rational nor based on objective reality. individuals distort info to think about it in a way that is preferable to them
5 types of cognitive bias
confirmation bias, halo effect, false-consensus bias, self-serving bias, actor observer bias
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for and accept information that supports our prior beliefs or behaviours and ignore contradictory information
halo effect
the tendency for the impression we form about one quality of a person to influence our overall beliefs about the person in other respects
false-consensus bias
the tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people share the same ideas and attitudes as we do
heuristics
information-processing strategies or ‘mental shortcuts’ that enable individuals to form judgements, make decisions, and solve problems quickly and efficiently
2 positive influences of heuristics
save time when making decisions, can be adaptive and protect an individual from dangerous situations
2 negative influences of heuristics
prone to error, base-rate fallacy (perception is based on experience rather than actual fact)
prejudice
the negative attitude people possess towards individuals based only on their membership of a group
discrimination (+2 types)
the unjust treatment of people due to their membership within a certain social category. The behaviour that results from stereotyping and prejudice. direct and indirect discrimination
direct discrimination
when someone is openly treated unfairly because of their association with a particular group, or becuase they possess a particular characteristic
indirect discrimination
occurs when a practice or blanket rule applies to all people and unfairly disadvantages a group or person as a result
what can prejudice and discrimination lead to?
stigma
stigma (+2 types)
the feeling of shame or disgrace experienced by an individual caused by being stereotyped, and the resulting prejudice and discrimination that comes from that. social and self stigma
social stigma
is a negative label caused by widespread beliefs
self-stigma
is the result of the internalisation of negative stereotypes and can lead to poor self-efficacy and low self esteem
3 influences of prejudice and discrimination on mental wellbeing
damaged self confidence, higher experience of stress, increased susceptibility to mental health problems
4 ways to reduce prejudice, stigma and discrimination
education, inter-group contact, social media, laws
obedience (+3 types)
refers to complying with commands which are often given by a source of authority. constructive, destructive and blind obedience
what outcome does constructive obedience have
positive
what outcome does destructive obedience have
negative
why do we obey (3)
status of the authority figure, proximity, group pressure
conformity
involves the tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, feelings or behaviours in ways that are in agreement with what is accepted behaviour at the time.
why do we conform (4)
social norms, group shift, group think, deindividuation
social norms
society’s unofficial rules and expectations regarding how individual’s should act
group shift
a condition in which the influence of the group causes an individual to adopt a more extreme position
group think
a psychological phenomenon in which assumed group unanimity overrules individual’s realistic appraisal of consequences
deindividuation
refers to the tendency for individuals to lose their sense of identity and individuality within a group
