Unit 2 Flashcards
sensation
detaching, converting and transmitting raw sensory info from the environment
perception
selecting, organizing and interpreting sensory info
top down processing
higher level mental process, conduct perceptions on our experiments and expectations
bottom up processing
analysis that begins with sensory receptors
schema
collection of basic knowledge about a concept that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation and imaginations
perceptual set
mental predisposition (schema) influence how we perceive sensory info
selective attention
the ability to focus on a particular object or activity while ignoring competing stimuli
divided attention
the ability to focus on multiple tasks
- multitasking
- complex executive function
cocktail party effect
ability to focus on one voice with a mix of conversations and background noise
gestalt
process of interpreting and organizing visual info
- take different perceptions to make a whole (filling in holes)
- top down processing
law of prognanz
people will interpret ambiguous or complex images in the simplest form
closure
the tendency to fill in gaps in figures and to see incomplete figures as complete
Ex: dnt wry abt it
proximity
tendency to perceive objects that are close to one another as being grouped together in a meaningful way
similarity
elements that are similar are perceived to be more related than elements that are not similar
continuity
tendency to perceive each of two or more objects as a different, singular and uninterrupted even when intersect
- lines are the smoothest path
connectedness
elements that are connected by uniform visual properties are perceived as connected
figure group
in most visual scenes, we pick out objects that stand out against their surroundings
depth perception
the ability to perceive the relative distance of objects in the visual field
binocular cues
images captured by both eyes to create an image
- retinal disparity
- convergence
retinal disparity
the slight different between the images projected onto each retina
Ex: closing and opening each eye the objects move slightly
convergence
cues that rely on the way your eye muscles work
accommodation
cues that came from muscles attached to the lens
monocular depth cues
depth cues that can be determined with one eye
interposition
distance determined based on the fact that objects overlaps or partially covers another
relative clarity
objects that appear sharper and more clear are closer than hazy objects
relative size
closer object appear larger than distant objects
texture gradient
smaller objects are more thickly clustered appearing further than objects spread out in space
linear perspective
two parallel lines converge, we perceive that vanishing point being further away
brightness constancy
tendency to perceive an objects brightness as the same under different lighting conditions
color constancy
perceive a familiar object as having the same color under different lights
perceptual adaptations
a temporary change in how a person sees or perceives something after being exposed to a new/intense stimuli
apparent movement
perception of movement created by rapidly displaying still images
Ex: flip book
- stroboscopic movement
stroboscopic movement
we perceive movement
Ex: flip book of picture to create the perception of movement
cognition
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating
metacognition
thinking about how you think
- evaluating your mental process
- plan, reflect, adjust
concept
mental grouping of similar ideas, objects, events or people
prototype
most typical member in a conceptual category
- stereotype or first thing you think of when given a category
schema
cluster of related concepts; mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret data
assimilation
interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schema
accommodation
adjusting our schemas to incorporate info provided by new experiences
divergent thinking
coming up with as many possible situations
convergent thinking
narrowing available solutions to determine the single best one
functional fixedness
cognitive bias that hinders creativity and pre vents problem solving
Ex: it’s just a sock
algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure to arrive at a solution
- correct solution GUARANTEED
- Ex: trying every possible combination of a four digit code to get the right one
heuristic
mental shortcut that allows judgement to solve problems fast
- correct answer NOT GUARANTEED
- Ex: trying obvious passwords like 1234 or the birthday of the person
representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut that involved judging whether something belongs to a given class based on similarity to other members of the class
availability heuristic
mental shortcut in which judgments are made based on recent events
Ex: during Covid someone coughs and you assume they have covid
confirmation bias
tendency to process info by looking for info that is consistent with existing beliefs
belief perseverance
tendency to believe even when presented with credible contradictory evidence
mental set
tendency to apply a previously technique in solving a new problem
priming
introducing someone to a stimuli
Ex: how do you spell…
framing
the process of defining the context of a question
Ex: 20% fat or 80% lean beef
gambler’s fallacy
the mistaken belief held that random processes are self-correcting
sunk-cost fallacy
the tendency to continue a course of action in which one already invested time and money
Ex: we already paid we might as well stay until the end
executive functions
generate, organize, plan, carry out behaviors, experience critical thinking
encoding
getting info into memory
storage
maintaining and retaining encoded info over time
retrieval
getting info out of memory storage
automatic processing
information that enters long term memories without conscious effort…. result of repetitive training (straight to long term)
effortful processing
conscious act of encoding info into memory, requiring effort and focus
Ex: making quixlet for class
iconic sensory memory
vast but fleeting visual memory
echoic
vast but fleeting auditory memory
working memory
allocation attention, decision making, task shifting, memory retrieval, inhibit distraction
central executive
relies on prefrontal cortex
- working memory (temp. short term)
- response inhibition (impulse control)
- set shifting
- delay gratification
visuospatial sketchpad
stores and manipulates info in a visual form
Ex: picturing a route to school, image of #s your manipulating
phonological loop
stores and manipulates spoken nd written info
Ex: repeating a 6 digit code to remember it
levels of processing
structural, phonemic, semantic
structural processing
focus on physical quality of word (letters)
Shallowest level
phonemic processing
sounds of the word
- rhymes and syllables
middle level
semantic processing
meaning of the words
- how does it relate to something I already know?
deepest level
long term potentiation
the strengthening of synapses after repeated activation
- kind of like a muscle
explicit memory
stored in hippocampus
- conscious recollection
semantic memory
collection of facts, general knowledge
Ex: when was Pearl Harbor?
episodic memory
specific personal events
Ex: What did you do after states?
implicit memory
involved the basal ganglia
- function automatically and influences behavior without conscious effort
Ex: procedural, priming, classically conditioned assocaitons
procedural (implicit)
how to perform a learned skill or motor actions
Ex: riding a bike
priming (implicit)
expose to one stimlus can influence the response to the next one
classically conditioned associations (implicit)
assoctiation between some neural stimuli
Ex: not being able to eat a certain food if you had a bad experience with it growing up
prospective memory
remembering to perform actions in the future
method of loci
known as the memory placing technique
- uses visual info and spacial memory to memorize and recall
chunking
the organization of items into familiar and manageable chunks
spacing effect
learning is more effective in short study sessions more spread out than crammed together
testing effect
learning and memory are increased by inclusion of practice tests
serial position effect
you are more likely to remember the first (primary) and last (recency) terms
maintenance rehearsal
repeating info to store in short and working memory
elaborative rehearsal
deep focusing technique that involves connecting new info with stored info
highly superior autobiographical memory
superior ability to recall specific details of autobiographical events (photographic memory)
autobiographical memory
recollection of specific personal info and events
anterograde amnesia
damage to hippocampus
- inability to form new explicit memories
retrograde amnesia
damage to association areas
- inability to retrieve explicit memories of the past
alzheimers disease
deterioraten of cholinergic neurons
- use Ash to send messages
infantile amnesia
after two years, weak connections are pruned and erased
recall
active reconstruction of memery
(essays, open ended, etc)
recognition
cured recall, identifying something previously encountered (face, MCQ, etc)
context effect/context dependent
more likely to recall if the context during retrieval is the same during encoding
Ex: sitting in the same seat where you learned the info
state dependent memory
more likely to recall info if internal state is similar as when it was encoded
Ex: hungry, tired, drunk
mood congruent memory
more likely to recall memories that match current mood
Ex: sad, happy, dejected
forgetting curve
memory as a function of time
- most information is forgotten in 24hrs
proactive interference
old interferes with new
retroactive interference
new interferes with old
inadequate retrieval
insufficient retrieval cues
tip of the tongue phenomenon
state in which one cannot recall a familiar word with similar form and meaning
repression
unwanted, painful memories are pushed into unconscious (cant consciously recall) but still affect our behavior
misinformation effect
tendency for the info you learned after an event to interfere with your original memory of what happened
source amnesia
inability to recall when, where or how you learned something, yet still being able to recall the information
constructive memory
describes the process by which we update memories in light of new experiences, situations and challenges
- every time you recall a memory you re-encode it
Ex: remembering an experience different than it acc happened
memory consolidation
process when temporary memories are made into stable permanent ones
imagination infalciton
imagination leads to “recollection” or false memories
Spearman theory
we have one intelligence factor (g)
- people who do well in one area tend to do well in other areas
Gardner and Sternberg theory
suggests that there are multiple intelligences
- could explain savant syndrome: one person displays an island of brilliance
Cattle-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory
suggests that intelligence is based on g and other specific abilities
G (fluid intelligence)
ability to reason speedily and abstractly
- decreases after mid-adulthood
Ex: old people not being able to update their phones
G (crystalized intelligence)
accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
- increases throughout lifespan
intelligence
ability to learn from experience, solve problems, use knowledge to adapt to new situations
(SOCIAL CONSTRUCT)
IQ
how we quantify intelligence (mental age/chronological age * 100)
psychometrics
a scientific discipline concerned with the construction intelligence
psychometric principles
- standardization (uniformity)
- reliability (consistency)
- validity (accuracy)
- socio-cultural responsiveness (no bias)
standardization
establishes a set of norm/standards for comparing individual test scores to a larder population
test-retest
yields similar results each time its administered
split half
access internal consistency
- mean score for each half of the test should be similar
construct
measure should correlate with other self-esteem measures
(should not correlate with unrelated constructs; stress, economics)
stereotype threat
occurs when a person is at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about their social group
stereotype lift
boosts performance that occurs when downward comparisons are made for the outgroup
flynn effect
average IQ scores are going up generationally
reasons for the flynn effect
- better nutrition
- better education
- smaller families
- increased environmental complexity
aptitude
future performance
- armed service test, IQ tests for kids
achievement
current measure of understanding
- SAT, AP Exams, end of course test
growth mindset
belief that personal characteristics like intelligence can be developed through effort and learning
fixed mindset
belief that basic qualities (intelligence and talent) cant be changed
longitudinal studies
to see the impact of nurture and aging on intelligence
- studying person from childhood to adulthood
cross sectional studies
compare intelligence of different demographic groups
