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Intro to Psychology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Top-down processing

A

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations (interpret what our senses detect)

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2
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information (enables your sensory systems to detect lines, angles, and colors that form the images)

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3
Q

Absolute threshold

A

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

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4
Q

Difference threshold

A

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time (a just noticeable difference)

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5
Q

Subliminal messaging

A

presenting something below a person’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

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6
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

reduced sensitivity in response to constant stimulation (nerve cells fire less frequently)

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7
Q

Perceptual sets

A

mental tendencies and assumptions that set us up to perceive one thing and not the another

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8
Q

Feature detectors

A

nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as shape, angles, lines, or movement

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9
Q

Parallel processing

A

processing many aspects of stimulus or problem at the same time

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10
Q

The Gestalt concept

A

an organized whole, our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

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11
Q

The Gestalt principles

A

Closure, continuation, similarity, symmetry, proximity, and figure-ground

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12
Q

Depth perception

A

the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional (allows us to judge distance)

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13
Q

Retinal disparity

A

By comparing images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance (greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object)

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14
Q

Perceptual constancy

A

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

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15
Q

Cochlea

A

A fluid-filled shaped cavity located in the inner ear that plays an important role in hearing, the fluid moves in response to vibrations and nerve endings transform vibrations into electrical impulses that are sent to the brain

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16
Q

Kinesthetic sense

A

sense of movement (system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts)

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17
Q

Vestibular sense

A

sense of balance and body position

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18
Q

Synesthesia

A

when your brain routes sensory information through multiple unrelated senses, causing you to experience more than one sense simultaneously (one sense produces another)

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19
Q

ESP (Extrasensory perception)

A

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input (includes telepathy, precognition, and clairvoyance)

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20
Q

Predictive power of dreams

A

Precognitive dreams are the most widely reported occurrences of precognition. Usually, a dream or vision can only be identified as precognitive after the putative event has taken place. (also a controversial claim)

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21
Q

Stimulus

A

any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response

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22
Q

Classical conditioning

A

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli and anticipate events (biologically adaptive because it helps humans and other animals prepare for good or bad events)

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23
Q

NS (Neutral stimulus)

A

a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning

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24
Q

US (Unconditioned stimulus)

A

a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response

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25
CS (Conditioned stimulus)
an originally neutral stimulus, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
26
UR (Unconditioned response)
an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
27
CR (Conditioned response)
a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
28
Extinction
in classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response - when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it is no longer reinforced)
29
Spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response
30
Generalization
in classical conditioning, the tendency after conditioning to respond similarly to stimulus that resemble the conditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other similar situations)
31
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced)
32
Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior become more probable if followed by a reinforcer or less probable if followed by a punisher (own actions with consequences)
33
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
34
Positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting pleasurable stimulus, anything that strengthens the response when presented (after a response occurs)
35
Negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors after stopping or reducing a aversive stimulus, anything that strengthens the response after it is removed (after a response occurs)
36
Continuous reinforcement
reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs
37
Partial reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time, resulting in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement
38
Fixed-ratio schedules
reinforces a response after a specified number of response
39
Variable-ratio schedules
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
40
Fixed-interval schedules
reinforces a response only after a specified time as passed
41
Variable-interval schedules
reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
42
Positive punishment
punishment by adding an unpleasant stimulus
43
Negative punishment
punishment by taking away a pleasant stimulus
44
Vicarious reinforcement
when the frequency of certain behaviors increases as a result of observing others rewarded for the same behaviors
45
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer toward a desired behavior
46
Observational learning
learning by observing others
47
Latent learning
refers to knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it
48
Intrinsic motivation
the natural, inherent drive to pursue something and seek out challenges and new horizons
49
Extrinsic motivation
any reason someone does something other than the joy of the task such as recognition, rewards, or money
50
Encoding
the process of getting information into our brains
51
Storage
the process of retaining information over time
52
Retrieve
the process of getting information out of memory storage
53
Effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
54
Implicit memory
retention of learned skills, classical conditioned associations, without conscious awareness
55
Explicit memory
retention of facts and personal event you can consciously retrieved
56
Iconic memory
short-term sensory memory in which one can recall visual images for just a few milliseconds
57
Echoic memory
short-term sensory memory in which one can recall sounded in our minds for 3 or 4 seconds
58
Short-term memory
briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten
59
Long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system, including knowledge, skills, and experience
60
Episodic memory
explicit memories of personally experienced events
61
Semantic memory
explicit memories of facts and general knowledge
62
Recognition memory
identifying items you previously learned
63
Recall memory
retrieving information out of storage and into your conscious awareness
64
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of a particular associations in memory
65
Context-dependent memory
recall is stronger when a subject is present in the same environment in which the original memory was formed
66
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall events to fit our mood
67
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system, helps process explicit memories (facts or events) for storage
68
Encoding failure
unattended information never enters our memory system
69
Storage decay
information that is faded into our memory
70
Retrieval failure
we cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference or motivated forgetting
71
Proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall on new information
72
Retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
73
The misinformation effect
occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

Intro to Psychology (4 decks)

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