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AP Psychology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Bottom-up vs top-down processing

A

In bottom-up processing, the stimulus itself shapes our perception, without any preconceived ideas. In top-down processing, background knowledge and expectations interpret what we see

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2
Q

Schamas

A

patterns of thinking and behavior that people use to interpret the world. Allows us to take shortcuts in interpreting the info that is available in our environment

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3
Q

Perception-sets

A

Bias in noticing things which affects the way people interpret things because of past experiences or expectations

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4
Q

Gestation theory of perception

A

Helps explain how human organize their perceptual world (closure, proximity, similarity)

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5
Q

Closure

A

Illusion of seeing an incomplete stimulus as though it were a whole (close a square)

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6
Q

Figure and ground

A

Tend to segment our visual world this way. Figure is the object or person that is the focus of the visual field and ground is the background

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7
Q

Proximity

A

Things that are close together appear to be more related than things that are spread further apart

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8
Q

Similarity

A

when things appear to look alike we tend to group them together

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9
Q

Selective attention

A

Focusing on a particular object for some time while at the same time ignoring distractions and irrelevant info (cocktail party effect)

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10
Q

Change Blindness

A

a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in visual stimulus is introduced and observer doesn’t notice it

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11
Q

Inattentional Blindness

A

The failure to notice a fully visual but unexpected object bc attention was engaged on another task, event, object

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12
Q

Depth perception

A

Ability to see objects in 3 dimensions, including size snd how far away they are from you

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13
Q

Relative Clarity

A

objects that appear sharp, clear and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects

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14
Q

Relative Size

A

the more distant an object, the smaller its size will appear

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15
Q

Texture Gradient

A

Smaller objects that are more thickly clustered appear farther away than objects that are spread out in space

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16
Q

Linear Perspective

A

parallel lines that converge appear far away

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17
Q

Juterposition

A

1 object partially blocking covers another object giving the perception the object that is partially blocked is farther away

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18
Q

Perceptual Constancies

A

several types but the main 4 are: size, shape, color and brightness. An observer’s recognition of an object can remain the same even if it appears to change in these ways

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19
Q

Concepts

A

a mental grouping of similar objects, events or people

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20
Q

Prototype

A

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy methods for sorting items into categories

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21
Q

Schema

A

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information based off your own experience (branches off prototype)

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22
Q

Assimilation

A

interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schema (schema doesn’t change)

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23
Q

Accommodation

A

adapting current schemas to incorporate new info (schema changes)

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24
Q

Algorithm

A

a methodical, logical procedure that guarantees solving the problem

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25
Q

Heuristic

A

mental shortcuts to solve problems quicker, but more prone to error than algorithm

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26
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

prior expectations

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27
Q

Availability heuristic

A

most recent examples

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28
Q

Decision Making

A

can be influenced by prior experiences that were successful (mental set) or circumstances surrounding a decision (priming and framing)

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29
Q

Mental State

A

brain’s tendency to stick with most familiar solutions to a problem and ignores alternatives. Likely driven by previous knowledge (long-term mental state) or is temporary by-product or procedural learning (short-term mental state_

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30
Q

Priming

A

individuated exposure to a certain stimulus influences their response to a subsequent (following) prompt, without any awareness of the connection

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31
Q

Framing Effect

A

people react differently to something depending on whether it is presented as positive or negative. Decisions are influenced by how it is being presented vs what is being said

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32
Q

Cognitive Processes

A

such as gambler’s fallacy and sunk-cost fallacy can hinder people from making good decisions

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33
Q

Gambler’s fallacy

A

individuals erroneously believe that a certain random event is less or more likely to happen based on the outcome of a previous event or series of events (can’t have 3 C’s in a row on a test)

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34
Q

sunk–cost fallacy

A

our tendency to continue with an endeavor we have invested $, effort or time into, even if the current costs outweigh the benefits

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35
Q

Executive Functions

A

are cognitive processes that let people generate, organize, plan and carry out our goal-directed behavior and experience critical thinking

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36
Q

Creativity

A

is a way of thinking that includes generating new ideas and engaging in divergent (vs convergent) thinking. Hindered by functional fixedness

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37
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

expanding number of possible problem solutions

38
Q

Convergent thinking

A

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

39
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions

40
Q

semantic and episodic memory

A

are explicit

41
Q

Semantic Memory

A

knowledge learned over many interactions, takes effort, fact

42
Q

Episodic Memory

A

memory for specific events that you have experienced; just happened, no effort

43
Q

Procedural Memory

A

refers to memory for how to do things. It is often juxtaposed to declarative memory which refers to memory of facts. When we walk from one place to another, speak to a person in English, dial a cell phone (our often unexplained knowledge of how to do things)

44
Q

Prospective Memory

A

enables a person to recall an intention to do something. in that sense, while it retains info from the past, prospective memory is most future-oriented than other categories of memory (remember to call a friend at a specific time, take medication every night)

45
Q

long-term potentiation

A

process where synaptic connections p/u neurons become stronger with frequent activation. A biological process for memory

46
Q

Explicit Memory

A

have to work to remember, leads to implicit memory over time

47
Q

Implicit memory

A

unconsciously remembered

48
Q

Multi-store memory model

A

Atkinson and Sniffrin
something from the environment goes to the brain->sensory memory (2-4 seconds) –>attention and rehearse it–>short-term (7 things) (20-30 seconds)–> rehearsal consolidation ->long-term memory (limitless)->retrieval in there but in back)

49
Q

Working Memory

A

refers to the parts of the human memory dedicated to processing and utilizing temporary (short-term) info. how we make sense of, modify, interpret and store info in short-term memory

49
Q

Levels of Processing Model

A

proposes that memory is encoded on 3 levels from shallowest to deepest; structural (looks like) phonemic (sounds like) and semantic (means)

50
Q

Encoding Memories

A

involves processes and strategies to get info into memory. how info is encoded can determine how effectively info is stored and retrieved

51
Q

Mnemonic Devices

A

are processes that aid in encoding info into working and long-term memory. any learning technique that aids info retention or retrieval in the memory often by associating info with something easy to remember

52
Q

Method of Loci

A

strategies for memory enhancement by using visualizations or familiar spatial environments to recall info

53
Q

Encoding

A

can be improved by grouping, categorizing or hierarchies (most to least important)

54
Q

Spacing Effect

A

process that can cause differences in encoding and memory consolidation depending on whether the info is encoded all at once (mass practice) or distributed over time (distributed practice

55
Q

Encoding Processes

A

can be effected by the order of how the info is presented

56
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

predicts that info presenter at the beginning of the list (primary) or end of the list is more memorable than info in the middle of the list

57
Q

Sensory Memory

A

brief physiological storage of info that comes from 1 of the 5 senses

58
Q

Short-term memory

A

working Memory ->long-term memory

59
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

(better than maintenance) helps commit into long-term memory. contextualizes info for better storage and retrieval (chunking, rhymes, puns)

60
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal

A

Used to commit info to short-term memory. Repetition and leads to forgetting info in a short time (dates, names, times)

61
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

long-term memory for one’s personal history (happened to them)

62
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

(cant make new) Inability to form or retain new memories/info after the onset of amnesia. damage to the medial temporal lobe and medial diencephalon. Temporary or permanent but can be treated by repetition, practice.

63
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

(Can’t remember old) inability to recall memories before amnesia. Caused by damage to areas adjacent to hippocampus, treated by exposing lost memories and temporary in nature

64
Q

Dementia

A

Decline in memory reasoning, or other thinking skills

65
Q

Infantil amnesia

A

Inability to remember events that occurred before the age of 4-3 years old (unless saw them in a tape or described to us)

66
Q

Recall vs recognition

A

Recall- remembering without cues

Recognition- relies on retrieval cues

67
Q

Context Dependent memory

A

Putting yourself back in the context of some thing can prime your retrieval recall is better in the room you learned it in.

68
Q

Testing effect

A

Finding that long-term retention is best when the info is repeatedly tested during learning

69
Q

Metacognitive Theory

A

Siri of knowledge, that is interested in how humans can actively neglect their own thought processes

70
Q

Metacognitive Theory

A

Siri of knowledge, that is interested in how humans can actively monitor or neglect their own thought processes

71
Q

Stage Dependent Memory

A

You remember when your in the same mood as you learned it in

72
Q

What is the significant factor in forgetting?

A

Time. Forgetting occurs rapidly after initial leaning and levels off over time

73
Q

Encoding failure

A

Breakdown in the process of getting info into the cognitive system. When encoding failures happen the info doesn’t get into memory. Can occur because of inattention to the target info or inference when the target info is presented

74
Q

Proactive interference

A

When old info or knowledge gets in the way of learning new info

75
Q

Retroactive interference

A

When newer memories interfere with the retrieval of old memories

76
Q

Type of the tongue phenomenon

A

The inability to retrieve a specific word as a response to a visual, auditory or tactical presentation. Even though the person will know the word, they’re trying to think of it, it remains elusive and just outside of mental reach

77
Q

What do psychodynamic theorists believe? (Repression)

A

Info memories can be forgotten to defend the eagle from this stress. Something that happened we didn’t like, so we forget.

78
Q

The misinformation effect

A

Tendency for the info learned after an event to interfere with your original memory of what happened

79
Q

Source amnesia

A

Inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned info has been acquired while retaining the factual knowledge.

80
Q

Constructive memory

A

Psychological concept that analysis how the brain creates memories. Memories may not fully
recall real happenings or events since they can be altered by new information.
Factors such as perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes may also alter memories

81
Q

Memory consolidation

A

Processes in the brain that convert short-term memories into long-term ones

82
Q

Imagination inflation

A

Increase tendency to falsely remember that an item has been seen, or an action has been performed when its only been Imagined

83
Q

Spearman General Intelligence “G”

A

Charles Spearman introduced the concept of general intelligence, or the “g factor,” which he found correlated with similar scores on mental aptitude tests, indicating that intelligence is a general cognitive ability.

84
Q

Thurstone Seven Primary Mental Abilities

A

seven primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed, and reasoning

85
Q

Multiple intelligence theory

A

Individuals have various types of intelligences, each representing a unique way of processing information and problem-solving, challenging traditional IQ-based views and broadening their definition

86
Q

Sternberg Triarchic Approach to Intelligence

A

three types of intelligence: practical,(street smarts/ common sense), creative and analytical (academic problem solving)

87
Q

What are the 3 things a good intelligence test needs?

A

It must be standard, valid, and reliable

88
Q

construct vs predictive vadility

A

Construct- measurement of knowledge of the subject

Predictive- predicts future scores

89
Q

Flynn Effect

A

IQ scores across much of the world have generally
increased over time due to societal
factors, such as higher socioeconomic status and
access to better health care and better nutrición

90
Q

Binocular depth cues

A

Using input from both eyes to perceive depth. Retinal disparity (changes place in each eye) and convergence (inward movement of eyes as object comes closer)

91
Q

Monocular depth cues

A

Relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, interposition

AP Psychology (6 decks)

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