Unit 1.2 Flashcards
Harold Wilson
MP- 1945-83
PM- 1964-70 , 1974-76
Labour Party leader - 1963- 76
He linked Labour Party to modernisation in contrast to what were described as the wasted years of the Conservative government. This modernisation was reflected in Wilson’s image. He was seen as classless, an image far removed from the Old Estonian style of Eden, Macmillan and Home. He was the first PM educated in state secondary schools ,smoked a pipe and spoke with a Yorkshire accent. Also relaxed and a skilful performer on TV. 1964- Labour won 317 seats to conservative 304 (44.1% to 43.4%). 1966- won 363 seats to 253 ( 47.9% of votes to 41.9%). Initially he had appeared on the left of Labour Party. He had born a Bevanite, resigning in 1950 over prescription charges. Also served in Gaitskill cabinet but challenged him for leadership in 1961. He lost, but this made him an obvious candidate in the future. He supported Britain’s nuclear deterrent and attempted to reform the trade unions. In 1966, Conservatives replaced Home with a more modern looking heath, however, Heath was no match for Wilson, who was a better political technician and was able to portray a more attractive image to voters. In contrast, Heath was stiff and lacking in personality. In private Wilson was anxious and insecure about leadership. He was conscious about balancing potential rivals, so he would remain unchallenged. Wilson was heavily reliant on personal team of trusted advisors from outside the government and civil service. Wilson’s team was dominated by personality of Marcia Williams, his personal political secretary. Others who took part in informal discussions in the kitchen at 10 Downing Street included. Economic advisers and a few Inner Circle MPs. Many believed this kitchen cabinet re-informed his suspicion of party rivalries and prevented ministers from having access to him.
Individuals and their approaches to economic and industrial relations- Wilson
Wants to reform trade unions. Wants to avoid devaluation or deflation despite wanting to reorganise economy and break out of stop go cycle
Individuals and their approaches to economic and industrial relations- James Callaghan
Had excellent links to the trade unions, also did not want devaluation or deflation. Centre right of the party
Individuals and their approaches to economic and industrial relations- George Brown
Set up DEA ( Department of Economic Affairs), set growth targets and devised national system of ‘economic planning councils’, Tried to establish voluntary agreement about wages and prices with industrialists, trade union leaders and civil servants. Aim was to secure the restraint needed to prevent inflation rising which the government would need to stop with controls. In this way stop go cycle could be avoided.
Individuals and their approaches to economic and industrial relations- Roy Jenkins
right of party. Strongly in favour of devaluation in 1964. Replaced Callaghan as Chancellor, used deflationary methods. Raised taxes, tightened up government spending in all areas of economy , gives priority to balance of payments. Made him unpopular but works
Individuals and their approaches to economic and industrial relations- Barbara Castle
believed strongly in trade union movement but also convinced of the need for it to act responsibly. In Jan 1969 provided her white paper, In Place of Strife. Knew it would be controversial, describing it as political suicide. She also put through the Equal pay act as Secretary of State for employment
Individuals and their approaches to economic and industrial relations- Jack Jones
Instrumental in defeating In place of strife in 1969. He was an extremely powerful union leader of Transport and General workers union who protested against Castles proposals whilst supported by over 50 Labour MPs who were ready to rebel
Individuals and their approaches to economic and industrial relations- Tony Benn
More left of party. Took over as Minister of Technology from Frank Cousins in 1966, department performed better under Benn but in some ways all labours domestic policies were overshadowed by economic problems.
Economic issues - Why was it a problem?
-Largely accepted Britain lagging behind others counties such as Japan and West Germany by 1964.
-Affluence of Post War Boom had not been reflected in productivity or growth rates
-Britain’s economy seemed to be trapped in cycle of stop go with bursts of prosperity always leading to inflation , runs on the pound and regular crisis over the balance of payments.
-Labour inherited a deficit of about £800 million.
-Wilson and his chancellor of Exchequer, James Callaghan, did not want to use devaluation (make Brit look weaker in the world, scale back activities abroad also) or deflation ( old stop-go approach) as economic solutions.
Economic issues - Evidence of Failure
- DEA- Wilson believed that better planning could, in the long term, make British industry more competitive. He created a new ministry - the Department of Economic Affairs (DEA) - to devise a plan to modernise and improve Britain’s economy. The National Plan was published in September 1965 and set two ambitious targets for British industry.
~An annual growth rate of 3.8 per cent over six years.
~An increase in exports of 5.25 per cent each year to wipe out the balance of payments deficit.
Unfortunately, the National Plan never had much chance of success. There
were three main reasons for this.
* The Treasury jealously guarded its role as the government’s economics
ministry and did not co-operate with the DEA.
*The recommendations of the National Plan for government spending were undermined by the Treasury’s deflationary measures to solve the immediate economic difficulties
* The NBPI had no power to enforce its decisions. It relied on the co-operation of the trade unions, who did not support a policy of wage restraint.
As a result of in-fighting, the Department of Economic Affairs was wound up in 1969. Nevertheless, the National Plan contributed to the Labour Party’s victory in the March 1966 general election because it suggested that the government had a coherent vision for the future.
Economic issues - Evidence of Success
- Deflationary measures - The Chancellor’s deflationary measures had reduced the balance of payments deficit and prevented a run on the pound, but critics were already pointing out that the government was struggling to impose wage restraints and that the DEA and the Treasury were pursuing contradictory policies.
-Devaluation- On 18 November 1967 the pound was devalued. Instead of being worth $2.80, it was now worth $2.40. The trade figures were stubbornly slow to improve and the substantial balance of payments deficit remained. Nor did devaluation prevent cuts in spending. Roy Jenkins replaced Callaghan as chancellor but, despite devaluation, concluded that severe deflationary measures were still needed to cure the balance of payments crisis.
-In January 1968 the government announced that all British forces east of Suez (apart those in from Hong Kong and the Persian Gulf) were to be withdrawn by the end of 1971.
-Prescription charges, abolished in 1964, were reintroduced.
- The raising of the school-leaving age from fifteen to sixteen was deferred from 1971 to 1973, a change that undermined the educational reform the Labour government had believed essential to its plan to modernise Britain.
In the budget of March 1968 Jenkins, determined to overcome the balance of payments deficit, delivered another hefty dose of deflation, increasing taxation by £923 million. During 1969 there were signs of improvement. The balance of payments at last showed a surplus, the value of sterling rose and interest rates were reduced.
- In Autumn 1964 ,the chancellor of the exchequer, Jim Callaghan, negotiated foreign loans to prevent a run on the pound , over the next nine months, introduced series of deflationary measures which included higher taxes on tobacco and alcohol, and a temporary import surcharge.
Industrial relations - Why was it a problem
Since the war, all governments, Conservative as well as Labour, had seen it as essential to maintain full employment and to keep the unions happy. Wilson had hoped to improve industrial relations and win trade union support for his efforts to modernise Britain but the economic difficulties of the 1960s opened a rift between the government and the unions. Wilson became convinced that:
~Strikes for higher pay, many of them unofficial, were disrupting production, forcing up labour costs and contributing to inflation and Britain’s poor export performance.
~Industrial relations needed to be more strongly regulated if the government’s efforts to control prices and wages were to succeed.
It was particularly difficult for the Labour government to reform industrial relations because the trade unions were their traditional allies and provided he Labour Party with most of its money. Their block votes at Labour Party conferences could often prove decisive in determining party policy. The trade unions also exercised considerable economic power:
* The closed shop requiring workers to join a particular union enhanced union bargaining power.
*Strikes in nationalised industries could cause disruption throughout the country.
In 1966 and 1967, industrial relations with the trade unions began to deteriorate. Strikes by the seamen and the dockers caused economic problems for the government. These strikes also seemed to demonstrate that old-style union bosses were losing some of their control. A lot of strikes started with ‘wildcat’ strikes by local activists who would not take orders from the top.
Industrial relations - Evidence of Failure
- No evidence of success
- By 1968 Wilson was worried by press criticism of his failure to tame the unions and by the Conservatives’ announcement of a plan to reform industrial relations. In April he asked Barbara Castle, a Cabinet colleague from the left of the party, to lead the newly established Ministry of Employment and Productivity and reform industrial relations. In January 1969 Castle’s proposals, called In Place of Strife, were published. The principal proposals were:
- Employees would have a legal right to join a trade union.
- The government could order a ballot to be held before a strike if it believed there was a serious threat to the national interest.
- In an unofficial dispute the government could order a return to work for a 28-day ‘cooling-off period.
- Disputes between unions could be referred to an industrial commission whose decision would be legally binding.
- There would be financial penalties if the commission was not obeyed.
- Workers who were unfairly dismissed would be entitled to compensation Or to get their jobs back.
The TUC and left-wing Labour MPs were incensed by ‘In Place of Strife’. As one trade union leader put it, legal sanctions would introduce the taint of criminality into industrial relations. More than 50 Labour MPs rebelled when In Place of Strife’ was debated in the House of Commons.
Resistance within the party, the TUC and even in the Cabinet led by Home Secretary Jim Callaghan, caused Wilson to back down, A face-saving formula vas devised by which the TUC gave a ‘solemn and binding undertaking’ that it would monitor strikes and disputes and offer considered opinion and advice: The failure of In Place of Strife’ contributed to the fall of the Labour government in 1970 and convinced many outside the Labour movement not only that trade unions had too much power, but that their resistance to change was a major obstacle to economic progress.
As traditional industries declined and white collar employment grew, some of the largest and most powerful unions lost members . There was an increase in the membership of unions representing workers in the expanding public sector of government administration, health and teaching, but this was not matched by the private sector where many employers discouraged union membership.
Developments and Economic pressures of the following areas 1964-70: Concorde
The Concorde was a supersonic passenger carrying commercial airline. It was built in the 1960s and eventually retired in 2003 by both of its founding countries. There was only 14 Concorde aircraft that went into service and was built as a joint venture between the UK and France. The Concorde could fly 100 passengers and a crew of nine from NYC to London in an average of three hours and 30 minutes. Estimated to cost £70 million, which is around 1.39 billion. The programme experienced huge cost overruns and delays, and the programme eventually cost between £1.5 and £2.1 billion in 1976 (£9.44 billion-13.2 billion in 2019). This extreme cost was the main reason the production run was much smaller than expected. The per-unit cost was impossible to recoup, so the French and British governments absorbed the development costs.
Developments and Economic pressures of the following areas 1964-70: Defence spending
The 1966 Defence White paper was a major review of the UKs defence policy initiated by Labour Government under Harold Wilson. The document was centred around the need to support NATO in Europe and make commitment that the UK would not undertake major operations of war expect when in cooperation with allies. Within the document the Government decided on significant reductions in defence budget, with the government wanting to reduce public spending due to wider economic problems. Such as Devaluation of the pound.
Developments and Economic pressures of the following areas 1964-70: Colour TV
The UK Promoted a very good but expensive form of TV, however the USA had a more cheaper form of colour TV which meant the US sold more than the UK . Colour TV sets did not outnumber black-and-white sets until 1976, mainly due to the high price of early colour sets. In March 1969, there were only 100,000 colour TV sets in use in the UK; by the end of 1969 this had doubled to 200,000, and by 1972 there were 1.6 million.
Developments and Economic pressures of the following areas 1964-70: Rocket Development
The Black Arrow was a British satellite carrier rocket developed during the 1960’s and was used for four launches between 1969 and 1971 with the final flight on the 28th October 1971, being the only successful orbital launch to be conducted by the United Kingdom placing the Prospero satellite into low Earth orbit. The project was temporarily put on hold by the Labour Government to reduce expenditure but was eventually continued following another election. It was retired after only four launches after the rocket program was cancelled in favour of using American Scout rockets which had been offered at a reduced cost by the US. The Ministry of Defence calculated the Scout to be cheaper than maintaining the Black Arrow program, but once the Black Arrow was cancelled and the UK rocket program was scrapped, the offer for low coast launches on the US Scout Rocket was withdrawn.
In 1955, Britain began developing a long-range liquid-fuelled missile, the Blue Streak programme. Designed to deliver nuclear weapons, as part of Britain’s independent nuclear capability, work focused on producing an intermediate range missile. n 1960, however, the Blue Streak programme was scrapped. The British Cabinet Defence Committee were reluctant to spend an addition £600m on top of the £65m already spent for a delivery system that proved to be militarily inadequate after testing. The main problem with the Blue Streak was that it was launched from fixed sites, which took up to thirty minutes to prepare for launch. Vulnerable to Soviet attacks and suffering from escalating costs, Britain’s independent nuclear missile programme floundered.
How Wilson solidified his position as leader
The divisions between the Left and the Right in the Labour Party remained in the period after 1964. However, after the death of Bevan, the leader of the Left, in 1960 and Gaitskell, the leader of the Right, in 1963, Wilson had emerged as a conciliatory leader of the party. Wilson’s concentration on the Labour Party as the party of technological modernisation united both the Left and Right of the parties and minimised underlying tensions such as that over Clause IV.
Wilson, personal rivalries within party
there were personal rivalries between Wilson and his most powerful cabinet colleagues. Wilson always feared that he might face a leadership challenge from Brown or Callaghan or Jenkins. Brown was hugely resentful that he had lost the leadership election to Wilson and was further disappointed that he was not made Foreign Secretary in 1964. Wilson was rumoured to have undermined Brown’s reputation by keeping a record of any embarrassing incidents that he was involved in once he had been reshuffled to the Foreign Office. Wilson was also suspicious of Jenkins, a Gaitskellite. He did not really support Jenkins’ liberalising legislation as home secretary. When the seaman’s strike of 1966 caused a sterling crisis Jenkins tried to get the cabinet to support devaluation. Wilson interpreted this as a plot to replace himself and Brown with Callaghan and Jenkins.
This highlights Wilson’s paranoia as it was highly unlikely that Callaghan and Jenkins would work together. Callaghan did not approve of Jenkins’ pro-European stance nor of his liberalising legislation; Jenkins was critical of the failure to devalue when Callaghan was Chancellor and was a supporter of the trade union legislation that Callaghan helped to block.
Criticism of Wilson for focusing on internal Labour issues
It is possible to criticise Wilson as in some ways it appears that too much of his energy and attention was devoted to trying to keep the party united and in stopping any of his colleagues from being able to threaten his position. Wilson did not face any obvious challenger from the left of the party but those who were more left-wing in the unions, local government and young people were frustrated by his government and this made it likely that the divide between the Left and Right would re-emerge in the 1970s.
Roy Jenkins
Strong pro European and considered to be on the right of the Labour Party. He entered Parliament as a Labour MP in 1950. Under Wilson he served as Home secretary 1965-67 and chancellor of Exchequer from 1967-70. In 1981 he went on to found and lead the Social Democratic Party (SDP). Used deflationary methods- rises taxes and tightened up government spending in all areas of the economy , achieved a balance of payments surplus in 1969.
George Brown
Came from a working class trade unionist background and was on the right of the party. He had a number of shadow cabinet and cabinet roles and was deputy leader of the Labour Party between 1960-70. He was defeated by Wilson in the leadership elections of 1963. Many people regarded him as unpredictable as he had a serious alcohol problem, frequently clashed with cabinet colleagues. He resigned in 1968 after a row with Wilson
James Callaghan
Associated with the centre right of the party but with excellent links to the trade unions. Wilson appointed him as chancellor in 1964, later on , he served as both foreign secretary and home secretary . Callaghan succeeded Wilson as PM in 1976. Callaghan didn’t want to use devaluation or deflation
The beginning of the troubles in Northern Ireland- When did Ireland officially become split into 2
Northern Ireland had been created in 1922, after the Irish War of Independence of 1919 to 1921. Ireland was partitioned between 6 counties in the north of Ireland that would remain part of the United Kingdom and other 26 counties which would be the Irish Free State, what would become the Republic of Ireland.
The beginning of the troubles in Northern Ireland- Why was the splitting controversial and what impact did it have
Neither side was particularly satisfied at the time as it had been split in compromise. The partition was extremely controversial at the time, leading to civil war, with unionists supporting the union with Britain and nationalists supporting a united Ireland.
The beginning of the troubles in Northern Ireland- How were Catholics treated in northern ireland
The majority of people in Ireland as a whole were Catholic but the majority of people in Northern Ireland were Protestant. This meant that the Belfast parliament at Stormont and the whole socio-economic system in Northern Ireland was dominated by Protestant unionists. By the mid-1960s there was mounting evidence that Catholics in Northern Ireland were discriminated against in employment and housing and that electoral boundaries had been deliberately drawn to prevent Catholics from being elected; in addition, there were accusations that the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), the Northern Irish police force, was biased against Catholics.
The beginning of the troubles in Northern Ireland- How did Catholics begin to challenge the situation
In 1964, the civil rights movement in Northern Ireland started to challenge this. Tensions rose as some unionists feared that the Irish Republican Army (IRA) would start a new campaign. These so-called loyalists started to set up paramilitary organisations to defend the union.
Civil rights marches were held in 1968 to protest against discrimination.
They were attacked by loyalists. Catholics complained that the RUC failed to protect them. In 1969 the situation deteriorated further. The loyalist Apprentice Boys went ahead with their annual march in Derry and were attacked by nationalists in the Catholic area of the Bogside. The RUC tried to storm the Bogside but were held back in two days of rioting. Television pictures broadcast across the world showed RUC officers beating Catholics. Riots spread to other towns and cities. The Stormont government offered concessions on housing and electoral boundaries; this sparked rioting from loyalists. In August 1969, the Wilson government sent in British army troops in an attempt to keep the peace.
The beginning of the troubles in Northern Ireland- Why did Wilson decide to send in an army
In August 1969, James Callaghan, Labour’s foreign secretary, took the momentous decision to send the British army to Northern Ireland to keep the peace. At first, the troops were welcomed by the Catholic community. Residents cheered and clapped as the soldiers encircled the Catholic Bogside area in Londonderry with protective barbed wire. This happy relationship was not to last. The IRA, which had been dormant, reorganised itself and took the lead in the struggle. However, not only did it resolve to attack unionism and head the Catholic nationalist protest movement, it also targeted the troops in Northern Ireland as representatives of the hated British imperialist government, seen as the root cause of Ireland’s problems.
The beginning of the troubles in Northern Ireland- What were the religious differences between the north and south
Northern Ireland was Predominantly Protestant and the South was predominantly catholic
1970 election
Conservatives : 46.4% of votes , 330 seats
Labour : 43% of votes, 287 seats
Liberals : 7.5% of votes, 6 seats
Others: 3.1% , 7 seats
Reasons why the Conservatives won the 1970 election
Heath - Edward Heath’s position in 1970 was similar to Harold Wilson’s six years earlier; he entered office with the aim of following progressive policies. He declared that he was adopting ‘a new style of government’ and that he intended ‘to reduce the rise in prices, increase productivity and reduce unemployment’. Where Heath differed from Wilson was in his intention to break with the consensus that had broadly operated since 1945 in regard to state intervention in economic and social matters. This attitude was summed up in the term ‘Selsdon Man’; it referred to the new type of Conservatism, sometimes called the ‘new right, that Heath had advocated in the run-up to the 1970 election. At a party strategy conference at Selsdon Park, Surrey, in January 1970, the Conservatives had agreed to promote a largely hands-off approach in matters of government direction and to encourage the people to use the new freedom to promote their own interests. An important aspect of Heath’s new approach was his decision to abandon an incomes policy; his government would not seek to impose a wage and salary freeze or interfere with pay settlements. Instead, market forces would be allowed to operate, allowing free bargaining between employers and workers. However, to make such bargaining genuine and fair it was important not to permit the trade unions to have unfair advantages. That was the reasoning behind the introduction of the 1971 Industrial Relations Act by Robert Carr, the minister of labour
Powel : An extraordinary additional factor was Enoch Powell’s contribution to Labour’s defeat. Although Powell had been dismissed from the Conservative Party following his rivers of blood’ speech, his stand on immigration gained the Conservatives 2.5 million votes. R.W. Johnson, a leading psephologist, went so far as to claim that Powell won the 1970 election for the Conservatives: ‘Of all those who had switched their vote from one party to another in the election, 50 per cent were working-class Powellites. Not only had 18 per cent of Labour Powellites switched to the Tories but so had 24 per cent of Liberal Powellites.’ The result was a five per cent swing from Labour to Conservative, enough to put Edward Heath into office with a Commons’ majority of 30.
Reasons why labour lost the 1970 election
Despite internal party unrest and the loss of a number of by-elections, Wilson believed that Labour’s basic support remained solid. That was why the result of the election he called in 1970 took him by surprise. He had not realised that his undistinguished economic policies, and his apparent failure to control the unions, had lost his government a significant degree of support among moderate voters.
Even those who accepted the value of such social reforms tended to see them as isolated achievements. It was those who had had the highest hopes of Harold Wilson - the left of the Labour Party and young people - who, by 1970, had become the most disillusioned. The left-wing critics complained that Wilson’s government had either introduced or presided over the following:
* rising unemployment
* growing inflation
* wage controls
* attempted restriction of trade union freedoms
* immigration controls
* Britain’s failed attempt to join Europe
* retention of Britain’s nuclear weapons
* subservience to the USA in foreign policy.
Embarrassment in the Suez, having to retreat , as well as supporting the USA in Vietnam also did not help Labours cause.
Reasons why Labour might have expected to win in 1970
In some ways the victory of the Conservatives in the 1970 election seemed to be a surprise. The Wilson government had apparently come through its difficult times. Jenkins was credited with achieving economic and financial stability; Wilson was considered to be a master campaigner, far more experienced and more popular than the Conservative leader, Heath.
Jenkins reforms:
abolition of the death penalty 1969
Divorce Reform Act 1969
Abortion Act 1967
Sexual Offences Act 1967
Race Relations Acts 1965 and 1968
These reforms , particularly those relating to abortion, divorce, homosexuality, censorship and the death penalty, may be said to mark an important stage in the modernising of British social attitudes. They were largely the work of Roy Jenkins, home secretary between 1965 and 1967, who left such a mark on the home office that his successor, James Callaghan, simply continued with the programme that had been laid down. The measures were not always Jenkins’ direct initiative: the abortion law, for example, was introduced by the Liberal MP David Steel. But it was Jenkins’ support and encouragement of progressive social thinking that helped to create an atmosphere in which reform became acceptable.
Jenkins personified the tolerant, sophisticated attitudes that he wished to see become predominant in Britain. He was, of course, dealing with controversial issues. There were many in the population who were unhappy with these expressions of what became known as ‘the permissive age.
Labours failing areas
The growth of inflation which was 12% by 1969-70 and the use of deflationary methods which made the government unpopular despite working as well as conflict with trade unions following a storm of protest after In Place of strife leading to a humiliating compromise meant Labour government was becoming increasingly unpopular.
Having been rejected from the EEC in 1967 hard on the heels of the devaluation crisis made the governments economic polices look futile.
Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968
The Act prohibited new immigrants from settling in Britain unless they had family connections already established. However since the Act built on a previous measure introduced by the Conservatives in 1962, it was clear that both major parties had concluded that limitations on entry into Britain were necessary in the interests of peaceful community relations. It was to make that point that the Labour government had introduced the Race Relations Acts in 1965 and 68.
Capital Punishment - situation before
Arguments against the death penalty had been advanced in the 1950s and although public opinion remained sharply divided, the anti-hanging campaign had received a particular boost from the case of Ruth Ellis, a young mother convicted of murdering her abusive boyfriend in 1955. In 1957, the Tories had reduced the number of offences carrying the death penalty, but the Labour backbencher Sydney Silverman continued to campaign tirelessly to win support for a total abolition.
Capital Punishment - Changes introduced
In 1965, on a free vote, hanging was abolished for a trial period of five years, and in 1969 this was made permanent.Jenkins also refused to authorise the beating of prisoners, which ceased after 1967, and he brought in ‘majority’ verdicts for English juries rather than demanding unanimity. This helped convict many dangerous and professional criminals, though the abolition of hanging did not significantly reduce the number of murders or violent crimes, as its supporters had hoped.
Divorce - Situation before
Until the 1960s, divorce law demanded evidence that one party had committed adultery. To gain this, the rich had used private detectives and cameras, but for others, a divorce was often impossible. Jenkins believed the laws were out of date.
Divorce - Changes introduced
the Divorce Reform Act was passed in 1969. This allowed for ‘no fault divorce’ following the ‘irretrievable breakdown’ of a marriage. Couples could divorce if:
* they had lived apart for two years and both partners agreed to a divorce
* they had lived apart for five years and one partner wanted the divorce.
Divorce- Impact
Following the reform there was a huge increase in the number of divorces. In 1950 there had been fewer than 2 divorce decrees per 1000 married couples in England and Wales, but by the mid-1970s nearly 10 in every 1000 marriages ended this way. This could, of course, be partly explained by growing female independence, but it is very likely the Act played a major role.
Abortion - Situation before
Until 1967, abortion (except on strictly medical grounds) was illegal. The only way of terminating a pregnancy was to find a private clinic, if you could afford the fees, or search out a backstreet abortionist if you could not.
Between 100,000 and 200,000 illegal abortions were performed each year and around 35,000 women were admitted to hospitals with complications as a result. Worse still, between 1958 and 1960, 82 women died after backstreet abortions.
Abortion - Changes introduced
The Abortion Law Reform Association had campaigned for a reform in the law from 1945, arguing that legal obstacles to abortion ought to be removed to end these problems, but it was the thalidomide disaster of 1959 to 1962 (During the 1960s, the drug thalidomide, which was prescribed for pregnant women with morning sickness, was found to produce congenital deformities in children when taken in early pregnancy. Children were commonly born without the long bones of the arms and/or the legs. In reaction to this tragedy, opinion polls now showed a majority in favour of allowing abortion when an abnormality had been detected in a foetus) that did more to sway public opinion than any of their arguments. Not everyone was convinced though; in 1966 the Society for the Protection of the Unborn Child was set up to oppose any liberalisation of the law, fearing that any extension of abortion beyond strict medical grounds would lead to abortion on demand.
The Liberal MP David Steel led the reform campaign in Parliament, supported by the Labour government and also a number of Conservatives, and Roy Jenkins ensured an all-night Commons sitting in order to pass the bill. The Abortion Act (1967)permitted the legal termination of a pregnancy within the first 28 weeks, under medical supervision and with the written consent of 2 doctors. Importantly, the only justification needed was the mental suffering’ of the pregnant woman, not just her physical condition. The pro-abortionists celebrated, but hopes that the availability of more effective contraceptives and better education would limit the need for abortion proved false. The number of abortions increased from 4 per 100 live births in 1968 (35,000) to 17,6 in 1975 (141,000).
Homosexuality- reform
Up until the 1960s men could be imprisoned for two years for participating in homosexual acts. The Conservative government had rejected the Wolfenden recommendation to decriminalise homosexuality and the Labour government of 1964 was divided on the issue.
It was left to Leo Abse, a Labour backbencher, to take up the cause.
Thanks to Jenkins support he was able to get enough parliamentary time for his private members bill to become law as the 1967 Sexual Offences Act. Although this did not legalise homosexual acts it decriminalised them where three conditions were met:
* both partners had to consent
* both had to be over the age of 21
* it had to be in private.
The Act was welcomed by men who had previously been afraid to declare their sexuality and, in some cases, been forced to lead double lives. However, the Act was strictly interpreted: in private was interpreted as no one else being in the same building, so it did not mean the complete end of prosecutions for homosexual practices.
Race Relations Act
Race
The riots and disturbances of the late 1950s had alerted government to the racial tensions in certain parts of Britain. It was in an attempt to deal with this that Parliament had adopted three key measures; the Race Relations Acts of 1965 and 1968, and the Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1968.
Race Relations Acts of 1965 and 1968
Together, the Race Relations Acts were responsible for the following:
* prohibition of racial discrimination in public places and in areas such as employment and housing
* making incitement to racial hatred a criminal offence
setting up a Race Relations Board with the power to investigate complaints of racial discrimination
creating the Community Relations Commission to promote inter-racial understanding.
Theatres act
Theatres Act 1968
This measure effectively ended theatre censorship by removing the outdated system by which plays had to be submitted to the Lord Chamberlain for approval before they could be performed. Given the greater literary freedoms, this removal seemed a logical step, although cinema censorship, in the form of age categorisation, remained in place.
NHS (Family Planning) Act
The 1967 Family Planning Act made contraception readily available through the
NHS by enabling local health authorities to provide advice to a much wider population. Previously, these services were limited to women whose health was put at risk by pregnancy. Edwin Brooks MP introduced it into the House of Commons as a Private Members Bill, calling Parliament to respond to the issue of a rapidly growing population. He identified a social problem whereby low income groups were at risk of economic struggle through having more children than they could afford.
In the same year Parliament passed the Abortion Act, which legislated that an abortion could take place if there were significant health risks to the pregnant woman or her unborn child. The passing of these Acts reflected changing attitudes to sex in society, highlighting a need for increased knowledge and conversation.
Crucially, women were able to take control of their own fertility for the first time.
Commonwealth immigration act
Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968
The Act prohibited new immigrants from settling in Britain unless they had family connections already established. Since the Act built on a previous measure introduced by the Conservatives in 1962, it was clear that both major parties had concluded that limitations on entry into Britain were necessary in the interests of peaceful community relations. It was to make that point that the Labour government had introduced the Race Relations Acts in 1965 and 1968.
Education reform- Comprehensive Schools
By the 1960s the idea that the different types of secondary school in the tripartite system were equal in status had long since passed. The secondary modern pupils were seen as 11+ failures and the whole system appeared socially divisive, with the majority of grammar school places going to those from a middle-class background.
Local Education Authorities (LEAs) were responsible for schools and in some areas, for example, Labour-controlled Greater London, they had established comprehensive schools. In comprehensive schools every child would have the same opportunities to learn at their own pace and sit exams according to their own abilities in each subject.
By 1964, 1 in 10 pupils was being educated in a comprehensive (10 times as many as in 1951) but it was still only a small minority. In 1965 Tony Crosland, a leading supporter of the comprehensive system, became minister of education which accelerated this process.
He issued Circular 10/65, to all Local Education Authorities, requesting them to convert to comprehensive schools. Although it was not a statutory requirement, many authorities responded especially after 1966 when the government made money for new school buildings conditional on the drawing up of plans for comprehensives. By 1970, only 8 authorities had failed to do so and there were 1145 comprehensive schools catering for 1 in 3 of all state-educated secondary school pupils.
It is hard to say how successful these new comprehensives were. The mergers and changes in status for schools caused considerable disruption in the early days. Wilson justified them by claiming that comprehensives meant a ‘grammar school education for all, but many middle-class parents remained unconvinced. Some turned to the direct grant schools (which were allowed to continue) and independent schools, which meant that the idea of a truly comprehensive system was flawed from the start. Also the quality of education in the comprehensive schools was not as good as other schools on offer.
Education reforms- Higher education
Feda that Britain was sippingent of the Robins Comic clearing
The Robbins Report found that Britain lagged behind France, Germany and the United States in the provision of university places he that too many students followed arts related courses to the exclusion of the study of science and technology. The Labour government responded by expanding higher education:
* Polytechnics replaced Colleges of Technology. Their focus was to be on applied education for work and science and they would concentrate on teaching rather than research.
* Nine Colleges of Advanced Technology became full universities and the Royal College of Science in Scotland became Strathclyde University.
* New’ universities were to be founded (and charters given to some, like Sussex, which had recently been established).
* Unis founded post 1961-67- Newcastle(63), Bradford(66), York(63)
By 1968, there were 30 polytechnics and 56 universities. New institutions brought new courses and it became possible, for example, to take a degree in town planning and architecture. The new polytechnics and universities opened up higher education for many whose families had never attended a university, although middle-class children still dominated the old universities so it was hard to persuade anyone of the parity of opportunity.
Education Reform
Harold Wilson was later to say that he most wanted to be remembered for the creation of the Open University. It combined his enthusiasms for equal opportunities in education, modernisation and the white heat of technology’ by attempting to offer high-quality degree-level learning in arts and sciences to people who had never had the opportunity to attend campus universities.
In March 1963, a Labour Party study group proposed an experiment on radio and television to be called the University of the Air. Following his election success in 1964, Wilson appointed Jennie Lee (who had come from a working class background and went to Edinburgh uni thanks to support atom a trust) to consider the project, and it was her commitment that saw it through.
In September 1969, the Open University’s headquarters were established in Milton Keynes and by the middle of 1970 there had been enough applications for the first students to begin their studies in January 1971. It became a rapid success. The university used radio and television in innovative forms of distance learning, and recruited largely part-time students with a totally different social profile from traditional students. It attracted the mature, women and the disadvantaged, and it helped raise the esteem of those who had previously regarded themselves as educational failures. By 1980, the Open University had 70,000 students and was awarding more degrees than Oxford and Cambridge combined.
Mass Media 1960s - TV
Televisions was available everywhere -
1961, 75% of the population had a TV in their home and by 1971 it was 91%. That meant it was becoming more popular entertainment than cinema and starting to bring cultures together and end the isolation of distant communities. Hugh Greene became Director-General of the BBC in 1960, and set out to transform it.
The majority of money went to TV and not radio, also the guidelines on nudity and swearing were revised - creating a new style of media. In April 1964 BBC2 was launched and it allowed BBC1 to grow more populist. In July 1967, BBC2 became Rae first channel to broadcast regular colour programmes.
Mass Media 1960s - Radio
Radio survived the rise in TV, helped by the development of the cheap and portable transistor and the spread of car radios.
These, with long-life battery and earphones, meant radios could be taken out or listened to in the privacy of the bedroom. Personal radios meant programmes could be targeted at specific audiences, like teenagers who no longer had to listen to what their parents listened. At the beginning of the 1960s there were only 3 BBC radio stations, so people quickly seized on the gap in the market.
Young people started to listen to pop music from radio Luxembourg and from 1964,
‘pirate stations’ (Pirate radio stations are unlicensed broadcasters that defy the authorities and play what they want)
Mass Media 1960s - Newspapers
Many though that the arrival of TV would be the end of print media, and whilst ad revenue fell with leadership those that survived became stronger. 5 national newspapers closed in the early 1960s, but in 1964 both the Sun and Observer were launched. The Sun replaced serious working-class newspaper, the Daily Herald, with the aim of being of age and sharing more celebrity gossip and culture than traditional news.
Still there were magazines like the satirical magazines the ‘Private eye’ (1961), aimed at young people. The newspapers and magazines of this time offered a greater range of topics and culture for people to embrace in their individuality.
Mass Media 1960s - Advertising
Ad revenue in newspapers decreased, whilst the launch of ITV in 1955 had allowed advertising to expand. Advertisers could get into the family home and tempt customers with attractive goods and increase brand awareness. Expenditure on retail advertising rose from £102 million a year in 1951 to £2.5 billion by 1978.
This was backed up by the increase in TV licenses where in 1955 there were just over 4.5 million but by 1975 there were ~17.7 million, and even in 1965 there were ~13.25 million.
Mass Media 1960s - Impact
New technologies were taking over old methods, meaning some newspapers went out of business and the use of tv to advertise and publish stories increased. TV and new magazines helped to showcase new culture, letting everyone have more individuality.
There were more options of media for people to choose to consume depending on their views. TV and radio allowed even those previously excluded to consume media, and it influence their views.
Leisure Activities in the 1960s
Growth of Leisure at home-
Tv accounted to 23 percent of leisure time. 1969
By 1964 the year of the introduction of BBC 2 80 percent of households owned tv as 32.2 million people watched 1966 World Cup final
Also hobbies like diy and gardening started to occur.
1969 worlds first electric hover mower
Greater availability of leisure at home lead to an decrease in crowds at theatres etc.
Revolution of cars-
Passenger bus,coach and train declined as cars grew by 77 percent by 1974 compared to 1953 was 39 percent.
Car ownership rise 1967 reached 10 million mark of ownership
This was due to Ed a cement in technology which led to cars becoming cheaper and therefore more efficient ways to travel.
Holidays-
1960s also saw leisure travel turn into mass tourism.
1951- 27 million holidays 2 million abroad 1961 -34 million holidays - 4 million abroad
Britannia Airways founded 1964
Package holidays in their infancy although from 1966-1971 grown from 4 percent to 8.4 percent of holidays. Influences from abroad had start to influence introduction as opening of wine bars for example
Scientific developments 1960s- the post office tower
The tower is officially opened by Prime Minister Harold Wilson. Its dishes and antennae can handle 160,000 simultaneous telephone calls and up to 40 television channels through microwave radio. The tower was at that time the largest building in London. The tower is opened to the public for the first time on the 18th of April
1966. There was a restaurant built by billy butlin on it. Those who couldn’t afford to dine in Butlin’s 120-seat revolving restaurant could still visit the viewing galleries for 4s (2s for children).
Scientific developments 1960s- media and television
One of the first programs on tv to be broadcast from the uk was the 1966 election however this was only shown in America as colour tv was widely used there and in Britain it was pretty much just black and white television. However on the 1st of July 1967 the Wimbledon tennis tournament was broadcast in colour tv on bbc two. It used a new phase alternating line which was from Germany and provided colour television. On the 15th of November 1969 bbc 1 and itv 1 were also launched into colour television showing the change in ownership of colour televisions in Britain. However a tv licence for a colour television was double the tv licence of a black and white television with a colour tv one costing £10 and a black and white costing £5
Scientific developments 1960s- the railways
In 1968 British railways removed their last steam hauled service with was the fifteen Guinea Special. After this service were ran by a mix of new diesel and electric locomotives. They were used all over the uk. A big development was the electrification of the west coast mainline from London Euston to Birmingham in 1966 where electric locomotives would haul trains similar to the railways of Europe and Asia which were already running long distance electric trains. However despite the new electrified trains they were unable to go at much higher speeds as it was limited by the Victorian infrastructure.
