Unit 1.1

Question 1

why did labour win the 1945 election?

Answer 1

-Churchill had no understanding of modern world, his speeches were poor as he misjudged public opinion and views as he thought he would win as he won the war.
-Labour introduce NHS, welfare state, council houses, free education.
-lots of hardship in previous years, war and Great Depression, labour offered a step forward (new Jerusalem) whereas Churchill stuck in past
-The war changed peoples value, want less poverty. life improved during war, rationing, so health improved showing scenes worked however Churchill wanted to revert to start of work however labour would continue and introduce more.e.g. Beveridge report which labour wanted to introduce in full but Churchill thought was too expensive

Question 2

Attlee’s Britain- Economy

Answer 2

• after WW2 Britain owed 3.5 billion to other countries (mainly USA). When USA cut funding, Britain was on the verge of bankruptcy. UK received a loan of 4 billion from us however it was with interest and exchange control could be taken down a year after.
  -women were encouraged to work by government.
  -defence spending in Korean War increased costs for public

Question 3

Attlee’s Britain- NHS

Answer 3

• Anyone can use of any age or gender, no fees to pay. Each Family has a family doctor who can connect families with Dental services, Eye service, Medicine, Drug and Appliances, maternity services and hospital and specialist services.
• Could get your hair done by the NHS

Question 4

Attlees’s Britain- Education

Answer 4

-shortages of Teachers, Accommodation and Furniture in schools because of rising birth rates.
- Start to look at subjects like history and geography from a more realistic standpoint and move away from the older more ridged conceptions of teaching. Offer more freedom in all aspects of the curriculum.
-Multilateral schools

Question 5

Attlee’s Britain- Food

Answer 5

-Food supplies very low so begin to look abroad for food sources e.g., groundnuts in East Africa, Rice in Borneo and Tinned south African snoek.

Question 6

Attlee’s Britain- Housing

Answer 6

-Government begin the production of permanent prefabricated houses to allow local authorities to increase their housing stock.
-still shortage
- Bombs damaged 13,467 properties in 37 different areas
-1/4 of a million houses destroyed in war.
-squatting revolt- people went into empty houses and claimed as their own.

Question 7

Attlee’s Britain- Welfare State

Answer 7

-Maternity Benefits- £4 maternity grant for every child born, 20-shilling attendance allowance per week for 4 weeks following birth. For employed or self-employed mothers 36 shillings for 13 weeks beginning 6 weeks before birth.
- Family Allowances paid to mothers with 2 or more children
-Beveridge report offered 40shillings per week as benefit to married couples, and old age pensions at 14s. a week which was met by some criticism saying the right amount would be around 20. However, there was an overwhelming agreement it should be put in place however people were not confident it would be put into effect.

Question 8

Attlee’s Britain- Nationalisation

Answer 8

-Nationalisation of the coal mines on January 1st, 1947- act offered great possibilities of social advancement for the workers and whole nation.
-Lots of hostile, politically inspired criticism directed towards nationalised industries. Therefore, at a disadvantage of getting good men to serve on the boards of nationalised industries.
-number of days lost per year for 21 years under private enterprise of coal mines- 13,000,000. Number of days lost under nationalisation of coal mines ,1947,48 and 49 – 710,000.
- involuntary absenteeism on account of injury has increased from 1.8% to 3.1% however this is due to miners being able to afford to stay at home until they are well, before they would return to work before fully recovering in fear of unemployment, low rates of benefit and low pay

Question 9

Atlees’s Britain- foreign policy

Answer 9

-British Empire fell- on 15th August 1947 lost rule in India after nearly 200 years.
- Began to realise no longer world power
-British Nationality Act 1948- up to 800 million people from colonies allowed to come to Britain.

Question 10

1951-56 conservative rule

Answer 10

Conservative won election with 321 seats to 295 despite getting less votes with 48% to 48.8%
Prime minister was Churchill with Eden as foreign security and acting prime minster in Churchill absence, Macmillan was housing minister and butler was chancellor.
Won election due to having a good reputation post war, surrounded by good politicians and first past the post voting system.
However Churchill was an ill and elderly man, tensions began to arise between butler eden and macmillan as well as Churchill and eden

Question 11

1956-59 conservative rule

Answer 11

Conservatives won vote with 345 seats to 277, with 49.7% of votes to 46.4%.
Eden was prime minster with Butler as chancellor and Macmillan as foreign secretary.
During rule there was the Suez crisis in 56 which damaged Edens reputation.
Also Eden had a lack of political experience with all of roles previously being in foreign policy, also anxious making decisions and lacked leadership skills and had a lack of knowledge about economic issues.

Question 12

1959-64 conservative rule

Answer 12

Conservative won with 365 seats to 258 and 48.8% to 44.6% votes.
Macmillan was prime minster- popular person with little enemies. Labour was in a mess and was preoccupied with own internal battles making electoral success easier.
During government reign there was the Profumo affair.
Criticised of not keeping up with society.

Question 13

Post war consensus

Answer 13

Major issues that both political parties agreed on:
-Belief in a mixed economy- involvement by state as well as private enterprise
-Support for welfare state and NHS
-Wish to ensure full employment and to avoid mass unemployment of the 1930s
-Working with both trade unions and employers.

sometimes called Butskellism after conservative politician- R.A. Butler and Labour leader- Hugh Gaitskell

Question 14

Labour Policy 1945-51 VS Conservative Policy 1951-64
Housing

Answer 14

High demand for housing from:
Need to build houses to replace lost and damaged houses (wartime bombing)
Rising expectations – people in old houses wanted proper water supplies and sanitation
Growing incomes – more people could afford good housing

LABOUR:
The demand could not be met due to balance of payment problems caused by adverse import/export ratio.
Strict licensing system limited amount of private housing
Council houses for rent increased after 1945
1950 – 200,000 houses being built (sign import/export situation getting better)
Million houses built 1945-50
This was better than after 1918 but lower than expected after the boom of 1930s

CONSERVATIVE:
In 1951 promise to build 300,000 houses a year. Hope to rebuild housing stock destroyed during war and replace slums people had been living in.

Question 15

Labour Policy 1945-51 VS Conservative Policy 1951-64
Education

Answer 15

LABOUR:
The Education act 1944- provided compulsory free education within a tripartite secondary education system consisting of Grammar (for intellectually gifted), Technical (concentrate on practical and vocational skills) and Secondary Modern schools ( would give basic education to majority). Child would take an 11+ test to decide which school which was questioned due to fairness.

CONSERVAITVE
Continue Tripartite system

Question 16

Labour Policy 1945-51 VS Conservative Policy 1951-64
Social Reform

Answer 16

LABOUR:
The family allowances act 1945- provided a weekly payment of 5 shillings for every additional child past the first.
NHS was launched providing free medical and hospital treatment
Industrial injuries act provided cover for workplace accidents
-National assistance act dealt with cases of hardship and poverty
-National Insurance act- contributing to provide insurance against unemployment, sickness, maternity expenses , widowhood and retirement.

CONSERVATIVE:
Clean Air act 1956- aimed to prevent smog of early 1950s
Housing and factory act aimed to improve living and working conditions.
Butler as Home security was more liberal and started to take action on more controversial issues such as:
-death penalty- homicide act 1957- restricted when penalty imposed
-Homosexuality- 1957 Wolfenden commission recommended that homosexuality behaviour should no longer be illegal.
However both issues returned by 1960s.

Question 17

Labour Problems in 1950s- Why were Nuclear weapons so decisive for the labour party

Answer 17

Initially Bevan opposed Britain developing nuclear weapons. In 1957 he announced his opposition to unilateral nuclear disarmament arguing that ‘it would send a British foreign security naked into the conference chamber’. However some Labour left wingers joined the campaign for nuclear disarmament and this may have moved some voters away from voting for Labour. In a debate at the Labour Party conference 1960 Scarborough. Hugh Gaitskell tried to convince the party to not support unilateral disarmament, ‘ who will fight and fight again to save the party we love.’

Question 18

Labour Problems in 1950s- Why did splits within the Labour Leadership damage its election prospects in 1950s?

Answer 18

Gaitskell was on right of the Labour Party and became leader in 1955, defeating Bevan. His attempts at reforming the Labour Party was unsuccessful and wanted to abolish clause IV committing them to nationalism in Blackpool 1959. Aneurin Bevan was a hero to the Labour Left, resigned in 1951 to protest against the introduction of prescription charges, opposed unilateral Nuclear disarmament however left wingers were more socialist and joined the campaign for nuclear disarmament (which may have turned some votes away for Nye) which caused divisions. Bevan wanted Trade Unionists to have more say in Party ideology. The right of the Labour Party refers to more right wing ideology meaning less socialism and thus nationalism. While the left refers to more left wing ideology such as nationalism, society and a welfare state. This split within the labour party would be damaging, as labour was more focused sorting out internal issues to focus on an election campaign while voters were confused about what labour actually wanted/ supported.

Question 19

Labour Problems in 1950s- Why did things get worse for Labour with party conferences and the 1959 election?

Answer 19

Relations with trade unions: In 1956 a left winger Franks Cousins became leader of the transport and general workers union which was one of the most powerful unions. Cousins was against Gaitskills leadership and led an unsuccessful bus strike against Macmillan govt in 1958. After the election at the Labour party conference Cousins bitterly opposed Gaitskills leadership of the Labour Party. Mainly due to nuclear weapons.
1959 election: Labour 44.6% votes and 258 seats.
Conservative 48.8% and 365 seats. Meant conservatives had a majority over 100 compared to just over 60 in 1956.

Question 20

Reasons for conservative fall from power- EEC

Answer 20

1960- concerns over economy, Britain made application to join EEC in 1961 but were rejected in 63. Very embarrassing and makes Britain look weak.

Question 21

Reasons for conservative fall from power- Night of long knives

Answer 21

Macmillan resifts cabinet in July 1962, sacking aa third of it. Known as Night of the Long knives. intended to rejuvenate the government but actually weakened it.

Question 22

Reasons for conservative fall from power- series of spy scandals

Answer 22

-1961- George Blake convicted of being soviet double agent
-1962- John Vassal, civil servant discovered to have been blackmailed on basis of his homosexuality to pass info to Soviet Union. Vassal enquiry 1963 found no clear evidence but the talk of cover-ups suggested that the government was not in control of its departments.
-In January 1963 it was revealed that Kim Philby, a senior official in the foreign office, had for decades been passing information to the USSR as well as recruiting agents and running a spy network. Macmillan’s government had failed to spot traitor amongst ranks for long time
-The Argyll divorce case. In 1963 a lurid court case, in which the Duke of Argyll sued his wife, Margaret, for divorce on the grounds of adultery, provided the public with a host of salacious details, including a list of men with whom, at various times in various numbers, the duchess had had group sex. The list was said to include two (unidentified) government ministers, one of whom allegedly appeared in a pornographic photo that was shown in court.

Question 23

Reasons for conservative fall from power- Profumo affair

Answer 23

The Profumo affair in 1963. Politician of the centre was McMillan’s secretary of state for war John Profumo. In statements to Parliament and personal assurances, to PM, Profumo lied about actions. A public enquiry headed bye High Court judge kept affairs in the headline for weeks. The political impact of affair was short lived Image of McMillan and Conservative government as old and out of touch reinforced. Profumo, the defence security, had a brief relationship with Christine Keeler, who was a model, she was also sleeping with soviet spy, Ivanov, as well as having numerous members of the Soviet Embassy amongst contacts. This raise questions about leaks of Cold War secrets. Profumo was forced to resign in disgrace. Later details emerged the Profumo had first met Keeler at Cliveden, a famous country house used as a high class brothel by Dr Stephen Ward. Since Ward as a popular doctor, had many conservatives on his books the party was damaged by association, even though most of those heat-treated were genuine. Ward was subsequently put on trial. Fear in court case would go against him. He killed himself. At another trial Keeler was found guilty of perjury sentenced to 9 months in prison.

Question 24

Reasons for conservative fall from power- Macmillan successor

Answer 24

McMillan was undermined by serious illness and forced to resign in October 1963. He is not prepared for anyone to succeed him so the Conservative party was left with a decisive power struggle. Strong opposition from Rab Butler and Lord Halsham however, in the end, Lord home emerged as leader. The whole business made the party seem trapped in bygone age. Leads to split in seniors such as a Enoch Powell and Ian Macleod who said they will not serve for home as beloved not chosen democratically. arguments were open and public.

Question 25

Reaction to Home becoming PM in 1963- Qunitin Hogg

Answer 25

aka Lord Halisham
-conservative front bencher and cabinet minster for over 30 years
-One of strongest and most obvious candidates to become PM after Macmillan however Macmillan’s decisively favoured Alec Douglas Home for the top job when illness led him to resign in October 1963. Bitterly disappointed Hailsham told the new PM that he thought his tenure would prove a calamity for party and country.

Question 26

Reaction to Home becoming PM in 1963- Ian Macleod

Answer 26

-declared he would not serve under Home, whose leadership he believed would give the electorate the wrong image of Conservative
-Macleod believed Home was an aged and out of touch landed aristocrat and would send all the wrong signals
-Macleod used the term ‘Magic circle’ in an article in the spectator on 17 Jan 1964 about tory leadership control of 1963. The magic circle was a coterie of 9 men whom he believed responsible for the selection of Home, succession had been stabbed in the back as a result, against the cabinets wishes in his opinion.

Question 27

Reaction to Home becoming PM in 1963- Reginald Maudling

Answer 27

-Summer 1963- Maudling had previously been certain next leader however by autumn the situation less clear cut, Maudling star had faded. He believed that Macmillan had manipulated the result to ensure Homes success, as Bogdanor has demonstrated- “ the selection of Lord Home cannot be said seriously to have misrepresented conservative opinion at the time”

Question 28

Post war boom - Rationing

Answer 28

Food rationing finally came to an end in July 1954. The austerity of war time was over and the British people were set to enjoy the higher standard of living than ever before. Not spending as much money due to rationing had saved up money to spend.

Question 29

Post war boom- Birth rate

Answer 29

Acceleration in birth rate at end of World War II leading to fast increasing population. By 1961, there were 51 million people in Great Britain, which was 5% ( 2 million) more than in 1951.

Question 30

Post war boom - employment

Answer 30

Increasing trade and demand at home and ensured plentiful employment. By 1955 estimated that full employment achieved, only 200,000 unemployed, less than 1% of workforce.

Question 31

Post war boom - Trade

Answer 31

Global economy booming and countries rebuilt after war, led to a sustained increase in overseas trade which brought high levels of earning from exports and investments. Improvement in world trade in late 1950s enabled Britain to import 29% more goods than it had in 1951 for the same number of exports.

Question 32

Post war boom - New Industries

Answer 32

Huge expansion in electrical and engineering work, and more jobs in industries relating to cars, steel and other metals. Service industry that ranged from financial and professional service to transport and sales were growing. By 1960 nearly 5 million people were employed in service industry- 1 in 5 of population.

Question 33

Post war boom - Wages

Answer 33

Economic growth and low employment brought rising wages and people enjoyed rise in income. In run up to 1955 election Rob Butler , chancellor, was able to boost conservative election prospects with give away budget which provided the middle classes with £134 million in tax cuts. People felt more affluent and growth in consumerism. Brits enjoyed higher income per head than any other major country except USA.

Question 34

Downside to Post War Boom

Answer 34

Britains growth rates were in fact lower than those elsewhere with countries such as West Germany, France, Italy and Netherlands having a larger increase in industrial production than UK between 1952-59. Uk also lost shares in world trade: 25% -> 15% between 1950-62
But others gained: West Germany 7%-> 20%
Japan: 3%-> 7%
worker productivity also lower than Germany and France.

Question 35

Stop go economics cycle

Answer 35

1) Imports exceed exports and balance of payment crisis ->
2)Government controls high interest rate and wage freezes(stop) ->
3) Demand falls (stop) ->
4)Output decreases (stop) ->
5) Controls removed (go) ->
6) Increase in demand (go) ->
7) Rising Imports (go) ->
8) cycle back to start

Question 36

why government chose to use stop go economic approach

Answer 36

• short term plan - used around election
• Controlled inflation in short term

Question 37

Difficulties with stop go economics- Trade unions

Answer 37

Difficult to persuade trade unions that their members should not have high wage increase, particularly in some industries such as coal where miners felt they were not gaining as much as other workers. Government controls had to be used to curb excessive inflation and taxation remained high, both to control excessive spending that would lead to an unwanted increase in imports and to pay for the rising costs of public services.

Question 38

Problems stop go economics created in country- Manufacturing( visible trade)

Answer 38

Although higher salaries had created a large internal consumer demand, they did not encourage manufacturers to increase their export trade which would have helped bolster the export industries. This led to a trade deficit which helped to cause problems with the balance of payments.

Question 39

Problems stop go economics created in country- Economic policy

Answer 39

The crisis and the divisions in the cabinet carried on throughout the summer of 1957. It was a row that symbolised the problems of ‘stop-go’ economics.
In the end Macmillan sided with those who wanted to keep up an expansionist economic policy. When Thorneycroft proposed drastic spending cuts in 1958, Macmillan overruled him. Thorneycroft resigned, together with his junior ministers, Enoch Powell and Nigel Birch. The post-war consensus had remained in place.
The pressure from the United States over the Suez crisis exposed Britain’s financial weakness and started a run on the pound. Macmillan’s Chancellor, Peter Thorneycroft, believed in what a later generation would have called ‘monetarism: he wanted to limit wage increases and to cut the money supply. Other cabinet ministers, such as lain McLeod, who were one-nation Conservatives, were strongly opposed to such a policy because it would lead to increased unemployment and cutbacks in housing.

Question 40

Problems stop go economics created in country- over heating

Answer 40

worries about economy overheating forced government to introduce pay pause to hold down wage inflation and to ask for a loan from the IMF. Happened as there was wage increases so more spending so rising prices so economy grew very fast.

Question 41

British society fundamentally changed between 1951-64- Education

Answer 41

Disagreements between those who wished to end separate three-tier schooling altogether and replace it with a system of comprehensive schools, and those who defended the grammar schools since they were proving successful in providing education for working-class children.
While many Conservatives, particularly at local level where the fate of particular schools was being decided, strongly opposed the spread of comprehensives, the Conservative Party in its official policy came to accept that this form of schooling best fitted British needs. Minister of Education 1962-64, Edward Boyle, was one of the younger Conservatives under Macmillan who urged the abolition of the eleven plus exam and the provision of better education for all children.
Conservatives were far from being a barrier to spread of comprehensive schools, were in office when first purpose built schools appeared:
Kidbrooke School in south London, 1954
Sandfields School in Wales, 1958
Risinghill School in Islington, north London, 1960.
A single statistic illustrated this: in the second half of the twentieth century more comprehensive schools were built under Conservatives than under Labour. One of the key developments in Boyle’s time was the publication of the Robbins Report in 1963, which is best seen as an argument for extending the comprehensive principle into higher education.
Main recommendations of the Robbins Report 1963
-Expansion of the existing universities.
- Emphasis to be given to scientific education.
- The twelve existing colleges of advanced technology (CATs) to be upgraded to university status. g eula nevels arit
-Larger grants to be provided so that no potential students would be deterred by lack of income.

Question 42

British society fundamentally changed between 1951-64- Housing

Answer 42

Consumer boom led to the growth in house buying.
Attlee’s government had built over 600,000 homes by 1951.
Conservatives tried to better this record, who at the 1950 Conservative conference committed to building 300,000 houses annually. Macmillan was instrumental in fulfilling that pledge, as housing minster 1951-54 he achieved this target.
The pace slowed considerably after that, Conservative period of office 1951-64 witnessed building of 1.7 million houses, 60% being private dwellings.
During his administration in 1957 Macmillan presided over the introduction of the Rent Act which by abolishing rent control put 6 million properties on the market. However, this meant rent rose considerably making it difficult for tenants at the lower end of the scale to afford leases. However, Macmillan felt this was a necessary trade off in order to stimulate the rented property market.
The housing explosion was made possible by relative ease which money could be borrowed and repaid over long periods of time. Encouraged by the government, banks and building societies advanced the necessary capital in the form of mortgages that allowed increasing numbers to own their own homes creating conditions for what the conservatives called a property owning democracy. Such developments that Macmillan had in mind when he declared Britain had never had it so good.
Macmillan had been politically astute in calling attention to material improvements in peoples lives and implying it was largely the result of conservative policies. Although Macmillan was an optimist on the surface remarking on one occasion that if you weren’t optimistic you might as well be dead, he did harbour fears. In the same ’never had it so good speech’ he had been careful to warn that the prosperity could lead to inflation. It was his concern that the affluent times might not last that drew him towards the idea that Britain should consider joining the European common market

Question 43

British society fundamentally changed between 1951-64- unemployemnt

Answer 43

Despite evident improvement in the material wellbeing of many of the population, problems remained. Although the conservatives willingly inherited the Labour Party’s commitment to full employment, achieving this proved much more difficult.
Lowest annual figures for joblessness was well over a quarter of a million in the mid- 1950s, rose rapidly in the late 1950s and after falling in the early 1960s, reached a high point in Macmillan’s final year in government.
The persistence of high unemployment levels cast doubt on just how realistic it was to claim that the people had ‘never had it so good’.

Question 44

British society fundamentally changed between 1951-64- Rising Living Standards, affluence and consumerism

Answer 44

In 1951, Britain’s infrastructure was run down and in desperate need of modernising. There was a desperate need for new housing due to the damage of the war. The slums which had existed prior to the war were removed and in their pace, new towns were situated, such as Harlow (Essex).
Slums were replaced with new towns with council houses.
.New towns helped by labours plans from the 1940’s saw massive growth for example Stevenage, Crawley and Corby.
. These shifts in populations cleared the slums and meant that it broke up traditional communities.
. Homeownership increased by easy access to cheap mortgages, however there was still more people who rented than owned homes.
. By 1964 the conservatives had built 1.7 million houses
. Rent Act 1957 was designed to solve the problem of housing shortages. U5
Economy also improved:
In 1951 men’s average weekly wages increased from £8.30 to £15.35 10 years later. People were also able to buy more with their money. There was massive increase in private savings and car ownership. Farmers did very well and were helped by government subsidies. Food rationing ended completely in 1954 meaning people were able to spend money freely which led to a far better economy.
New affluence was embodied by a surge in ownership of goods such as televisions, washing machines fridges and furniture. Television even began to overthrow the dominance of radio. People now had the time and disposable income for DIY and other hobbies such as gardening and knitting. All of the public’s saved up war savings were burning a hole in their pockets, so consumerism was firmly on the rise. Car ownership rose 25% in just two years between 1957-59, between 1957-59 tv ownership grew by 32%, so more roads were built. Finally, cars and the rise in affluence made holiday camps hugely popular, such as Butlin’s, a holiday site made by Billy Butlin . 60,000 people stayed each week in Butlin’s in the 50’s!

Question 45

British society fundamentally changed between 1951-64- Class establishment and social mobility

Answer 45

Key events:
Suez crisis- When the Egyptian government took control of the Suez Canal, the British took military action.
This had massive implications at home and abroad. The USA started a run on the pound exposing financial weaknesses. It also exposed blatant lying and manipulation by the government.
Rise of CND from 1958- The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament caused major divisions especially in the Labour Party. The exposure of these divisions encouraged the tendency to challenge authority.
Profumo Affair - 1963- It was discovered that the Secretary of State for war John Profumo, was having an affair with Christine Keeler, who was also sleeping with Yevgeny Ivanovo (a Russian spy). There was great media coverage of this scandal and it showed the decline in deference.
‘Satire Boom’- By 1960 there was an increase in satirical arts. Examples are the satirical stage show ‘Beyond the Fringe’, 1961 magazine
Private Eye’ established a loyal following for its witty disrespect for the great and famous. Also, the ground-breaking BBC TV show ‘That was the week that was’ that debuted in 1962 and satirised public figures. It broke down the social barrier of speculation and commenting on /publicising scandal.
- Key individuals
-Conservative establishment - Macmillan’s government included a duke, heir to a barony, and three earls.
-Peter Cook, Dudley Moore, Jonathan Miller and Alan Bennett - creators of ‘Beyond the Fringe
-‘Angry young men’ - group of writers who in the 1950s led the way in using the arts to attack the established classes.
- John Osborne - wrote play ‘Look back in anger’ staged in 1956, the controversial nature received a mix in critic reviews. ‘ Best young play of the decade’, but also ‘more than slightly distasteful
-Key laws passed
* Homicide act 1957 - restricted when the death penalty would be imposed.
* 1957 - Wolfenden commission recommend that homosexual behaviour should no longer be a criminal act. Would later be tackled in 1960s.
-4th December 1961 - Contraceptive pill was made available on the NHS.
These show a more open society and gradual breakdown of class systems.
-‘The obscene publications act 1959 - criminalises the publication of an
article seen as ‘obscene’.
Overall Class loyalties had been strong in general elections; it is estimated that at the 1951 election, 65% of working-class voters voted for the Labour Party and 80% of middle-class voters voted for the Conservative Party. However, by the late 1950s there were signs of a shift in attitudes, and a gradual breakdown of old social restrictions and loss of deference. Due to more coverage of events leading to an increase in individual ideas, and the erosion of the establishment. It was becoming less of a conformist society.

Question 46

British society fundamentally changed between 1951-64- youth culture

Answer 46

-Why did youth culture become prominent ?
New labour saving devices meant girls didn’t have to help their mothers in the homes
boys no longer had to take part in national service in 1960
The baby boom led to in 1959 that there were 5 million teenagers in Britain ( 10 percent of the population )
-What was youth culture like ?
The youth dressed differently to their parents, listened to music and went to coffee shops instead of tea houses
By the end of the 50s TV and magazines aimed at these groups
Changes in technology for example the transistor radio help spread music and the culture
-Sub groups in British youth culture
Teddy boys – This led to rising crime and delinquency
Later came the Rockers and the Mods
Rockers – Rode motorcycles , wore leather jackets and listened to rock and roll
Mods – Rode scooters , wore smart suits and preferred pop music
Numerous clashes between the two groups this led to mass rioting in Clacton and Brighton.Fighting went on for 2 days and the police struggled to keep order – violence levels were vastly exaggerated

Question 47

British society fundamentally changed between 1951-64- women

Answer 47

-Legal reforms in the 20th century
Sex disqualification 1919 removal act 1919: opened all professions to women expect certain holy orders
Representations of the people act 1928: gave all women over 21 the chance to vote.
Equal pay for teachers (1952) and civil servants (1954)
-What was women’s position in 1951
The average marriage marriage age was 21 and 75 percent of all women were married.
Only 1 in 5 women went to work in 1951.
In 1951 in the mass observation they asked 700 housewives about there typical day. It consisted of washing up, cooking, cleaning and other basic household chores.
75 percent of women left work after ww2
- What changed for women in 1950?
In July 1954 the end of rationing gave women more time rather than waiting in long queues
Between 1957-1959 number of houses owning a washing machine rose 54 percent and refrigerator 58 percent. So more time to work for women.
This led to a 1/3 of women in 1960 in the workforce.
However 2/3 rds of those jobs were in low paid secretarial jobs .
Barley 1/10 in high professions
Number of divorces in 1939-7012 this rose to 60,190 in 1947. Women becoming more independent.
Family allowance introduced- Was an allowance that was supposed to ensure that women didn’t have to work.
Many people were scared for women to go into work like trade unions who thought they would lower the pay for workers.

Question 48

British society fundamentally changed between 1951-64- Immigration and Racial Violence

Answer 48

-What happened
*In 1953, people excited by commonwealth idea but didn’t want too many new citizens at once.
* Arrival of new commonwealth immigrants bought social change and social tension.
*Mixed attitudes: some were tolerant and wanted to ‘get along’; others had actions of friction, resentment against immigrants and outright racism from host communities
* Increasing amount of British emigrants to North America
*However, immigrants were considered ‘desirable’ by authorities, as filled many low paying jobs, so wanted social perception to change
* In the late 1950’s, perception of immigrants altered by racial tension
-Key events
* In 1958, 210,000 commonwealth immigrants settled in Britain, with 75% male there to support their family, with a large number from the West Indies, and a rising number from India and Pakistan
In 1950’s, Australia wanted to attract new citizens, and would help immigrants with housing and jobs In 1950’s, 676,000 immigrants seemed permission for permanent residence in Britain, while 1.32 million Britons left
In 1960’s, 1.25 million in immigration, 1.92 in migration
At the end of August 1958, outbreaks of serious violence from Nottingham gangs of white youths went on hunts and large riots broke out. There were outbreaks of serious violence in Notting Hill, where there was a large concentration of people from the Caribbean area. Landlords exploited tenants with overcrowded and badly maintained housing. At first, mostly white youths attacking West Indians; later small amount of violence in the other direction, mostly in self defence. Police were unprepared and Gad a lack of experience dealing with race riots.
-Laws passed
There was reluctance from the British government to control immigration from countries with close historic links to Britain.
* In 1962, Commonwealth Immigrant Act passed
Labour strongly opposed 1962 act, but did not repeal it after the 1964 election
-Key people involved
In Notting Hill, right-wing politicians, like Oswald Mosley, encouraged hostility towards African-Caribbean people
Mosley, the leader of British facism, tried to use violence to stand as Union Movement candidate for Kensington North in 1959 election on a platform of repatriation

Overall While there was a change in terms of racial attitudes, as at first there was enthusiasm for the commonwealth idea, however there was then racial tension towards the new commonwealth idea due to fears of absorbing too many new citizens at first. However, there was continuity in terms of racial feelings and tensions, as outright racism and violence towards immigrants continued throughout the 1950s/60s, despite introduction of things such as the 1962 Immigrant Act.

Question 49

Key British Foreign policy issues 1951-64

Answer 49

-membership of the EEC
-nuclear deterrent
-relationship with USA and USSR
-Korean War 1950-53
-Suez 1956
-Decolonisation

Question 50

Reasons why Britain did not want to be involved in the Foundation of the EEC

Answer 50

The EEC was strongly supported by Britain and the USA as an important contribution to the security of Europe. This was seen as vital at beginning of Cold War. However Britain did not initially become involved for the following reasons:
-There were very few politicians or journalists in favour of Britain taking up the leadership role in Europe that was on offer
-The left tended to be suspicious of the free market principles behind the common market: the response of the labour politician Herbert Morrison was that ‘the Durham miners won’t wear it I’m afraid’
-The right tended to regard the preservation of traditional trade links with Australia, Canada and New Zealand as far more important than those with Europe.
-There was a belief that this was an issue for continental Europe: the Germans had been deadly wartime enemies; France had been overrun and occupied; in contrast Britain had won the war
-There was an assumption that Britain was still a great world power.
-Britain wanted to balance its involvement in Europe with maintaining the
‘special relationship’ with the United States.

Question 51

Changes in Britain’s attitude towards the EEC by late 1950s

Answer 51

The EEC took shape at an international conference at Messina, in Sicily, in
1955. A British delegation was present to observe and encourage but not to join. These agreements were then developed in detail and the Treaty of Rome launched the EEC, without Britain, in 1957. The EEC was dominated b the partnership between France and Germany. The French president from 1958, Charles de Gaulle, was determined to protect this partnership fros les Anglo-Saxons (Britain and, through Britain, the influence of the United States At that time, it was not clear how successful “The Six would become. But within a very short space of time, British attitudes began to shift. In 1959, Britain took the lead in the formation of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). This was only moderately successful and the new organisation was not able to match the economic growth of the EEC.
In 1961, the Macmillan government submitted Britain’s application to join the EEC. The fundamental reason for Britain changing its mind about the EEC was economic. It was hoped that joining the EEC would:
* boost industrial production for a large-scale export market
* increase industrial efficiency with greater competition
* stimulate economic growth with the rapid economic expansion already seen in the EEC.
The United States was also keen to see Britain join the EEC for strategic reasons, seeing Britain as a vital link between Europe and America. Tensions were rising in the late 1950s in the Cold War. Finally, at the same time, belief in Britain’s imperial power had been shaken by Suez and by the accelerating pace of decolonisation in Africa.

Question 52

Reasons why Britain was refused membership of the EEC

Answer 52

Despite the application to join the EEC, Britain wanted to keep its position in two other areas of world affairs: the Commonwealth and the United States.
This made the negotiations with the EEC extremely complex and difficult.
The EEC had already developed detailed economic structures, especially the Common Agricultural Policy, that Britain found difficult to conform to.
Special exemptions for Britain’s Commonwealth trade partners, such as lamb exports from New Zealand, which would have been blocked by BEC rules, had to be sought. This took many months of hard bargaining, led on the British Side by Macmillans chief negotiator, Edward Heath:
The negotiations seemed to have reached a successful conclusion in January
1963; but at the last minute the French President Charles de Gaulle exercised Frances right of veto and blocked Britain’s application. He said Britain could not adapt to the ways of the Six; and criticised Britain’s unwillingness to give up its ‘special political and military relations with the United States.

Question 53

British relationship with the USA- evidence that Britain maintained a strong equal relationship

Answer 53

Butain and the United States remained close allies in the Cold War throughou the period. Britain supported the United Nations in Korea. It also worked wit the United States to sustain West Berlin. Harold Macmillan was involved in plans for a summit conference with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in 1960.
He also established a particularly good relationship with President Eisenhower, successor, John E Kennedy. Kennedy kept Macmillan informed with the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis, although the British Chancellor Peter Thorneycro described Britain as ‘bystanders during the crisis. Nevertheless, in many respects, it appeared that Britain had kept its place at the international top table.

Question 54

British relationship with the USA- evidence that Britain had become the junior member of relationship

Answer 54

Britain was still militarily overstretched and very dependent on American power. This was demonstrated by the costs of Britains independent nuclear deterrent. Britain’s relationship with USA was often put under strain for example : the Burgess and Maclean affair; Britain’s relationship with the EEC; and the Suez crisis.

Burgess and Maclean affair: Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean were highly placed officers in British intelligence. They defected to the Soviet Union in 1951. For years afterwards, there were concerns about finding the “Third Man’ who had tipped them off. The revelation that British spies had been leaking vital secrets to Moscow deeply worried the Americans, who became much less ready to share intelligence secrets with Britain.NO longer treated as equals with secret info.

Question 55

British government maintaining an effective and independent nuclear deterrent- First developing it

Answer 55

Britain’s first tests of the atomic bomb were in 1952. This made Britain the third country in the world to develop nuclear weapons, after the United States and the USSR. But by this point the United States and the USSR were already developing the more powerful hydrogen bomb; Britain’s ‘H` bomb was tested in 1957.

Question 56

British government maintaining an effective and independent nuclear deterrent- opposition

Answer 56

Concerns over these developments led to the formation of CND (the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) in 1958. CND rapidly became the most powerful pressure group in Britain, backed by many intellectuals and mobilising middle-class protesters. They wanted Britain to reject nuclear weapons and instead follow a policy of unilateral nuclear disarmament. Around 8000 people took part in a demonstration at the weapons research base at Aldermaston in Berkshire in 1958; a second march on Aldermaston in 1959 was even bigger. CND’s ‘unilateralism’ became a powerful magnet for anti-government protest and many Labour left-wingers joined in.

Question 57

British government maintaining an effective and independent nuclear deterrent- By 1960 how far did Britain have a independent nuclear policy

Answer 57

By 1958, the United States had once again agreed to share nuclear technology with Britain under the Mutual Defence Agreement. Britain’s own rocket project, Blue Streak, was abandoned in 1960. It was replaced by dependence On the American Polaris submarine weapons system. As it became clear that Britain would not have an independent nuclear deterrent, some in the Labour Party started to be more sceptical of supporting a pro-nuclear policy.

Question 58

What impact did Korean War 1950-53 have on foreign policy? - What happened

Answer 58

At the end of the Second World War, Korea, which had previously been ruled by Japan, was occupied by the Soviet Union in the north, and by the United States in the south. Two separate governments were subsequently set up, each one claiming to be legitimate. In 1950, forces from north Korea, supported by the soviet Union and China, invaded the south. The United Nations condemned the action and sent UN forces to combat the invasion. Over 20 countries suppled troops. Britain sent over 90,000 soldiers, the second biggest contingent after the United States. There was heavy fighting resulting in a stalemate. A ceasefire was agreed in 1953. Over 1000 British troops had died. Under the terms of the ceasefire it was agreed that Korea would be split between a communist North Korea and a non-communist South Korea.

Question 59

What impact did Korean War 1950-53 have on foreign policy? - The Impact

Answer 59

The Korean War showed how the Cold War was being fought across the whole world. It also demonstrated Britain’s willingness to continue to play a major role in world affairs, despite economic constraints. However, it was also clear that the United States was the greater power. It also showed Britain taking a greater role in stopping the spread of communism.

Question 60

What impact did Suez 1956 have on foreign policy? - What happened

Answer 60

The Suez Canal was the main artery connecting trade routes from the Mediterranean through to the Indian Ocean and beyond to Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Above all, the Suez Canal was the vital route for oil shipments: 80 per cent of Western Europe’s oil imports passed through the canal. The emergence of Egyptian independence under a new nationalist leader, Colonel Nasser, was deeply worrying for Britain’s strategic interests. The United States and Great Britain had planned to invest in the Aswan Dam, but pulled out in 1956. In response, Nasser announced the nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company to provide finance needed for the Aswan Dam.
Nasser’s action seemed to place Egypt on the Soviet side of the Cold War. The British prime minister, Anthony Eden, was considered an expert on foreign policy. But his understanding of the situation was influenced both by his belief that Britain was an imperial power and his experience in fiercely opposing appeasement in the 1930s. Eden saw Nasser as ‘an evil dictator who could not be allowed to get away with unprovoked aggression! Most of Eden’s cabinet, including the Chancellor, Harold Macmillan, agreed with him. Eden was encouraged by both France and Israel. A top-secret meeting was held at Sevres, in Paris, at which Britain, France and Israel agreed a plan of action. Israeli forces would invade Egypt; British and French forces would then intervene. The excuse for intervention would be to enforce peace on Egypt and Israel; the real effect would be to seize control of the Suez Canal zone. The details of this plan were concealed from Parliament and from the Americans. This plan was put into operation on 29 October when the Israeli attack was launched and the Anglo- French invasion followed. The military action did not go as smoothly as planned, though it might well have succeeded in the end, and was executed very well. But it also caused a storm of political protest in Britain. The Labour Party opposed the conflict, anti-war protests were held and public opinion was split on the need for intervention. Even more importantly, the United States opposed the action. And Britain was simply not strong enough in 1956 to stand up to American pressure; it was plunged into a serious financial crisis. Macmillan, one of the strongest supporters of the invasion, was the first to realise that it was essential to pull out despite failure and humiliation. Edens reputation was fatally damaged.

Question 61

What impact did Suez 1956 have on foreign policy? - The Impact

Answer 61

Suez meant Britains position in world now had to go through a fundamental reassessment in a number of ways. Firstly it brought into question Britain’s reputation as a force for good in the world. Secondly it highlighted Britain’s inability to act without, at least, the tacit support of the US. Thirdly it brought into sharp relief the impact Britain’s economic and financial policy had on the direction on foreign policy. Finally it started to undermine belief that, in the new globe situation after the second world war, Britain still was one of the worlds major powers. Also because Britain had acted in an imperialistic manner the US had started a run on the pound showing the financial blackmail the US had over the UK.

Question 62

Impact of Colonisation on Britain’s International position- Britain’s actions towards independence groups prior to 1956

Answer 62

By 1951 Britain’s retreat from Empire had begun. During the 1950s the pressure of Colonial independence movements became harder to contain. British forces found themselves fighting against national independence movements in Malaya, Kenya and Cyprus. Not just Britain that faced pressures however. France, Belgium and Portugal all had to deal with revolts. In the early 1950s, Britain’s rulers believed they could manage a gradual transition from the Empire to the New Commonwealth and that colonial resistance movements could be controlled until their peoples were ‘ready’ for independence. Nobody had any idea of the sudden rush to independence that was waiting to happen. When the Mau Mau rebellion broke out in Kenya in 1952, it was assumed that it could be quashed by the military. At that time, independence for Kenya was unthinkable - but that was before Suez. The difficult struggle to contain the Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya had already demonstrated the problems with Britain’s colonial policies. After the Suez fiasco, British policymakers began to reconsider the pace of decolonisation.

Question 63

The Mau Mau rebellion

Answer 63

The Mau Mau revolt in Kenya was one of several violent nationalist uprisings against British colonial rule after 1945. The leader of the revolt, Jomo Kenyatta, was imprisoned by the authorities but later emerged as president of an independent Kenya. In the 1950s, the struggle led to great bitterness on both sides. The Mau Mau fighters were accused of committing atrocities; on the other hand, revelations about brutal treatment of captives held at the Hola prison camp badly damaged Britain’s reputation

Question 64

Impact of Colonisation on Britain’s International position- Britains change in approach post 1960s

Answer 64

In 1957, Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) became the first of Britain’s African colonies to be granted independence. Nigeria and Cyprus also gained independence in 1960, Tanganyika and Sierra Leone in 1961, Uganda in 1962, Kenya in 1963. This shift in British policy was signalled by Macmillan’s famous wind of change speech. Macmillan’s wind of change speech- Before 1960, the central aim of British imperial policy was to defeat nationalist revolts and to maintain control over Britain’s African colonies. Other European colonial powers, including Belgium, France and Portugal, were fighting similar wars against nationalist uprisings. Macmillan’s speech at Cape Town, describing the wind of change blowing through the whole African continent was a significant change of policy, calling for decolonisation and recognition of independence movements. He was also seeking to persuade these countries to accept majority rule. South Africa preferred to follow minority white rule and voted in a referendum later that year to break all ties with Britain.
In retrospect, the policy was extremely successful. The process did not always go as planned, but British decolonisation was completed more swiftly and with far less violence than was the case with other colonial powers such as Belgium and Portugal. By 1964, the transition from Empire to Commonwealth seemed to represent a significant achievement.
Tone of message from Wind of change speech- Britan move from imperialisitc approach to Democratic approach fighting communism. Now supporting USA. Post suez- shows change in approach after suez. limitations are that it deosnt set tone for whole period as mac not in for long.