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Unit 1 genetics Flashcards

1
Q

the cell theory

A

all living things are composed of one or more cells
cells are smallest unit of living organism
new cells come only from pre-existing cells by cell division

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2
Q

how are traits passed on

A

from parent cell to new daughter cells and through genetic material in form of DNA

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3
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

single parent
involves cell division
advantages:
no mate finding
heredity offspring that is invariable

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4
Q

sexual reproduction

A

fusion of 2 sex cells
offspring is not genetically identical
each parents contributes half of the offsprings genetic info
disadvantages:
specialized organs
biologically costly
offspring can inherit DNA that makes them weak

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5
Q

the cell cycle

A

all somatic cells go through it
cells go through 1 complete cycle and becomes 2 cells
12-24 hours

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6
Q

3 functions of cell division

A

growth, repairing of tissues and organs, maintenance

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7
Q

stages of the cell cycle

A

interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis

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8
Q

interphase

A

cells carry out normal functions: grows, copies genetic material
3 phases:
G1: growth for a cell, synthesizing new molecules
S1: cellular DNA is replicated and exists as condensed fibers chromatin
G2: cell synthesizes more molecules prior to mitosis

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9
Q

mitosis

A

cells copied genetic material separates and cell prepares to split into 2 cells
key activity: accurate separation of cells DNA
result: 2 genetically identical cells

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10
Q

4 phases of mitosis:

A

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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11
Q

Prophase:

A

cells chromatin condenses into chromosomes that contain DNA
2 chromosomes arms are called sister chromatids and the chromosomes are joined in the middle called the centromere
nuclear membrane breaks down
nucleolus disappears
spindle fibers are formed from the centrosomes as they move apart to opposite poles

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12
Q

sister chromatid

A

one of 2 chromosomes that are genetically identical and held together at the centromere

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13
Q

centromere

A

region where 2 sister chromatids are held together in a chromosome

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14
Q

Metaphase

A

spindle fibers guide the chromosomes to the equator of the cell
spindle fibers from opposite poles attach to the centromere of each chromosome
each pair of sister chromatids are considered to be a single chromosome as long as they are joined at the centromere

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15
Q

anaphase

A

each centromere splits apart
sister chromatids separate from each other
separated sister chromatids are now referred to as chromosomes
spindle fibers shorten, pulling the chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell
1 complete set of chromosomes has been gathered at each pole of the cell

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16
Q

telophase

A

the chromosomes start to unwind into strands of chromatin
spindle fibers breakdown
nuclear membrane reforms around new chromosomes
nucleolus forms within each nucleus

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17
Q

cytokinesis

A

division of cytoplasm to complete creation of 2 new daughter cells
indentation forms in the cell membrane along the equator of the cell
cell is pinched in 2
ends the seperation of 2 genetically identical daughter cells

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18
Q

the structure of genetic material

A

DNA is made up of 2 long strands that form a spiral shape: double helix
DNA exists as strands of chromatin fiber

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19
Q

nucleotides

A

individual units of each strand of DNA
composed of a phosphate group, a sugar group, and a base

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20
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

pairs of chromosomes that appear similar in length, centromere location, and banding pattern
not identical
genes are sections of DNA that contain genetic info for traits

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21
Q

karyotype

A

particular set of chromosomes that an individual has
photograph of homologous chromosomes in a cell

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22
Q

Meiosis

A

produces cells containing HALF the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
2 key outcomes:
genetic reduction
genetic recombination
involves 2 complete cycles of PMAT I and II
LOOK AT SLIDE 30!!!

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23
Q

genetic reduction

A

Produces daughter cells with half the # of chromosomes

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24
Q

genetic recombination

A

the products of meiosis have different combinations of alleles

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25
prophase I
synapsis: each par of homologous chromosomes lines up side by side held tightly together tetrad: pair of homologous chromosomes, each with 2 sister chromatids while lined up, segments of chromosomes exchange for genetic diversity centrosomes move to the poles of the cells and spindle apparatus forms
26
crossing over
when non sister chromatids of an homologous pair exchange information
27
metaphase I
spindle fibers attach to centromere of each homologous chromosome these pairs line up along the equator of the cell
28
anaphase I
homologous pairs separate and move to opposite poles of the cells sister chromatids are still held together, centromeres do not split as they do in mitosis single chromosome (made up of 2 sister chromatids) move to each pole of the cell
29
telophase I
chromosomes begin to uncoil in this phase, spindle fibers disappear
30
cytokinesis I
2 cells form - new cells are haploid
31
meiosis II
similar to mitosis key difference: cell undergoing division during meiosis II is haploid instead of diploid haploid number of chromosomes line up at equator during metaphase II cytokinesis occurs resulting in 4 haploid cells
32
oogenesis
starts with a diploid cell called an oogonium oogonia reproduces by mitosis and begin meiosis, but stop at prophase I involves unequal division of cytoplasm cell that receives most cytoplasm after first division continues through meiosis I and II to form a egg
33
polar body
smaller cell formed from oogenesis degenerates in utero
34
independent assortment
each pair of homologous chromosomes line up at the equator in metaphase I independently of any other chromosome
35
crossing over
when non sister chromatids exchange pieces of chromosomes while lined up in prophase I
36
chiasma
point of contact between 2 homologous chromosomes
37
errors caused by changes in chromosome structure
deletions: piece of chromosome is deleted duplication: chromosome section appears 2 or more times inversion: section of a chromosome is inverted translocation: segment of 1 chromosome gets attached to a different chromosome
38
errors caused by changes in chromosome number
has more or less then 46 chromosomes in a cell
39
nondisjunction
happen in meiosis 1 where homologous pairs fail to separate or meiosis where sister chromatids fail to separate properly
40
gene cloning
use of DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of a single gene EX: human insulin cloning by bacteria
41
therapeutic cloning
process of replacing an egg cell's nucleus from a somatic donor cell to produce a cell line of genetically identical cells treats various diseases
42
reproductive cloning
process of producing genetically identical organisms controversial
43
transgenic organisms
techniques for inserting foreign DNA into plants and animals to produce transgenic organisms organisms whose genetic material includes DNA from different species EX: GMO: a organism that has had the sequence of its genome altered on purpose
44
Mendels pea plants
7 chosen traits expressed in 2 distinguishable forms began with true breeding plants called the parental generation true breeding one form of trait were crossed with true breeding plants with the other form of the same trait offspring was called F1 gen. offspring of this was called the F2 gen. one form of trait disappears in F1 and reappears in F2
45
Mendelian ratio
ratio of plants with yellow seeds to plants with green seeds in F2 gen; 3:1:1
46
law of segregration
traits are determined by pairs of alleles that segregate during meiosis so each gamete receives an allele
47
law of independent assortment
during gamete formation the 2 alleles for one gene assort independently of alleles for the other gene
48
monohybrid cross
only 1 trait is monitored in the cross and hybrid plants are produced
49
dihybrid cross
2 traits are crossed
50
test cross
cross between a parent of an unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive parentp
51
pedigree
a flow chart that uses symbols to show the inheritance patterns of traits in a family over many generations
52
autosomal inheritance
inheritance of traits whose genes are found on the autosomes-chromosomes 1 to 22
53
autosomal dominant
disorders occur when disease causing alleles is dominant and on individual has 1 or both copies of alleles *child is not affected, but BOTH parents are (if heterozygous)*
54
autosomal recessive
disorders occur when the disease-causing allele is recessive and an individual has both copies of the allele *2 unaffected parents can have an affected child (if both parents are carriers, heterozygous)*
55
incomplete dominance
neither allele for a gene completely conceals the presence of the other: intermediate expression of a trait heterozygote exhibits a phenotype that is somewhere between a dominant phenotype and a recessive one EX: Familial Hyper-Cholesterolemia
56
Co-dominance
both alleles for a trait are equally expressed in a heterozygote: both alleles are dominant EX: sickle cell amenia
57
multiple alleles
gene with more than 2 alleles any individual has only 2 alleles for each gene - one alleles on each homologous chromosome different alleles for a gene can exist within a population EX: blood types
58
polygenic traits
trait that exhibit continuous variation that are controlled by more than one gene
59
polygene
group of genes that all contribute to the same trait
60
Rh factor
inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells if blood has the protein: Rh positive if blood lack the protein: Rh negative
61
Rh incompatibility
develops in pregnant women when mother is Rh negative and infant is Rh-positive, blood mixes when giving birth and mothers immune system will fight it off.
62
environmental effects on inheritance
EX: temperature determines whether a gene is turned on or off
63
linked genes
genes that do not assort independently
64
linkage group
all of the genes on any chromosome
65
crossing over and inheritance of linked genes
linked genes segregate on a regular basis due to crossing over in prophase I of meiosis crossing over results: alleles of linked genes no longer being on the same chromosome : 4 gametes produced instead of 2
66
sex linked traits
traits that are controlled by genes on either the X or Y chromosome
67
X-linked genes
difference in expression of traits for genes that are found on the X-chromosome exhibited more often in males
68
Y-linked genes
few, contains only 100 homologous genes
69
disorder is X-linked dominant =
affected males pass the alleles only to daughter who have 100% chance of inheriting the disorder
70
females can poss on X-linked dominant alleles to=
both sons and daughters X-linked recessive traits affect more males than females
71
CVD
red-green colour vision deficiency X-linked recessive
72
Hemophilia
cannot produce necessary blood clotting factor X-linked recessive
73
Hairy ears
hair grows on outside of ears Y-linked Recessive
74
Barr Bodies
inactive X chromosomes: every cell has only 1 functioning X chromosome that condenses into a Barr Body
75
X-inactivation
random process that happens separately in individual cells during embryonic development, one cell might shut down paternal X, another Maternal X

Biology 11 (5 decks)

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