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Biology 11 > Unit 1 genetics > Flashcards

Unit 1 genetics Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

the cell theory

A

all living things are composed of one or more cells
cells are smallest unit of living organism
new cells come only from pre-existing cells by cell division

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2
Q

how are traits passed on

A

from parent cell to new daughter cells and through genetic material in form of DNA

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3
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

single parent
involves cell division
advantages:
no mate finding
heredity offspring that is invariable

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4
Q

sexual reproduction

A

fusion of 2 sex cells
offspring is not genetically identical
each parents contributes half of the offsprings genetic info
disadvantages:
specialized organs
biologically costly
offspring can inherit DNA that makes them weak

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5
Q

the cell cycle

A

all somatic cells go through it
cells go through 1 complete cycle and becomes 2 cells
12-24 hours

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6
Q

3 functions of cell division

A

growth, repairing of tissues and organs, maintenance

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7
Q

stages of the cell cycle

A

interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis

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8
Q

interphase

A

cells carry out normal functions: grows, copies genetic material
3 phases:
G1: growth for a cell, synthesizing new molecules
S1: cellular DNA is replicated and exists as condensed fibers chromatin
G2: cell synthesizes more molecules prior to mitosis

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9
Q

mitosis

A

cells copied genetic material separates and cell prepares to split into 2 cells
key activity: accurate separation of cells DNA
result: 2 genetically identical cells

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10
Q

4 phases of mitosis:

A

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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11
Q

Prophase:

A

cells chromatin condenses into chromosomes that contain DNA
2 chromosomes arms are called sister chromatids and the chromosomes are joined in the middle called the centromere
nuclear membrane breaks down
nucleolus disappears
spindle fibers are formed from the centrosomes as they move apart to opposite poles

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12
Q

sister chromatid

A

one of 2 chromosomes that are genetically identical and held together at the centromere

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13
Q

centromere

A

region where 2 sister chromatids are held together in a chromosome

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14
Q

Metaphase

A

spindle fibers guide the chromosomes to the equator of the cell
spindle fibers from opposite poles attach to the centromere of each chromosome
each pair of sister chromatids are considered to be a single chromosome as long as they are joined at the centromere

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15
Q

anaphase

A

each centromere splits apart
sister chromatids separate from each other
separated sister chromatids are now referred to as chromosomes
spindle fibers shorten, pulling the chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell
1 complete set of chromosomes has been gathered at each pole of the cell

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16
Q

telophase

A

the chromosomes start to unwind into strands of chromatin
spindle fibers breakdown
nuclear membrane reforms around new chromosomes
nucleolus forms within each nucleus

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17
Q

cytokinesis

A

division of cytoplasm to complete creation of 2 new daughter cells
indentation forms in the cell membrane along the equator of the cell
cell is pinched in 2
ends the seperation of 2 genetically identical daughter cells

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18
Q

the structure of genetic material

A

DNA is made up of 2 long strands that form a spiral shape: double helix
DNA exists as strands of chromatin fiber

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19
Q

nucleotides

A

individual units of each strand of DNA
composed of a phosphate group, a sugar group, and a base

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20
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

pairs of chromosomes that appear similar in length, centromere location, and banding pattern
not identical
genes are sections of DNA that contain genetic info for traits

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21
Q

karyotype

A

particular set of chromosomes that an individual has
photograph of homologous chromosomes in a cell

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22
Q

Meiosis

A

produces cells containing HALF the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
2 key outcomes:
genetic reduction
genetic recombination
involves 2 complete cycles of PMAT I and II
LOOK AT SLIDE 30!!!

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23
Q

genetic reduction

A

Produces daughter cells with half the # of chromosomes

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24
Q

genetic recombination

A

the products of meiosis have different combinations of alleles

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25
Q

prophase I

A

synapsis: each par of homologous chromosomes lines up side by side held tightly together
tetrad: pair of homologous chromosomes, each with 2 sister chromatids
while lined up, segments of chromosomes exchange for genetic diversity
centrosomes move to the poles of the cells and spindle apparatus forms

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26
Q

crossing over

A

when non sister chromatids of an homologous pair exchange information

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27
Q

metaphase I

A

spindle fibers attach to centromere of each homologous chromosome
these pairs line up along the equator of the cell

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28
Q

anaphase I

A

homologous pairs separate and move to opposite poles of the cells
sister chromatids are still held together, centromeres do not split as they do in mitosis
single chromosome (made up of 2 sister chromatids) move to each pole of the cell

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29
Q

telophase I

A

chromosomes begin to uncoil in this phase, spindle fibers disappear

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30
Q

cytokinesis I

A

2 cells form - new cells are haploid

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31
Q

meiosis II

A

similar to mitosis
key difference: cell undergoing division during meiosis II is haploid instead of diploid
haploid number of chromosomes line up at equator during metaphase II
cytokinesis occurs resulting in 4 haploid cells

32
Q

oogenesis

A

starts with a diploid cell called an oogonium
oogonia reproduces by mitosis and begin meiosis, but stop at prophase I
involves unequal division of cytoplasm
cell that receives most cytoplasm after first division continues through meiosis I and II to form a egg

33
Q

polar body

A

smaller cell formed from oogenesis
degenerates in utero

34
Q

independent assortment

A

each pair of homologous chromosomes line up at the equator in metaphase I independently of any other chromosome

35
Q

crossing over

A

when non sister chromatids exchange pieces of chromosomes while lined up in prophase I

36
Q

chiasma

A

point of contact between 2 homologous chromosomes

37
Q

errors caused by changes in chromosome structure

A

deletions: piece of chromosome is deleted
duplication: chromosome section appears 2 or more times
inversion: section of a chromosome is inverted
translocation: segment of 1 chromosome gets attached to a different chromosome

38
Q

errors caused by changes in chromosome number

A

has more or less then 46 chromosomes in a cell

39
Q

nondisjunction

A

happen in meiosis 1 where homologous pairs fail to separate or meiosis where sister chromatids fail to separate properly

40
Q

gene cloning

A

use of DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of a single gene
EX: human insulin cloning by bacteria

41
Q

therapeutic cloning

A

process of replacing an egg cell’s nucleus from a somatic donor cell to produce a cell line of genetically identical cells
treats various diseases

42
Q

reproductive cloning

A

process of producing genetically identical organisms
controversial

43
Q

transgenic organisms

A

techniques for inserting foreign DNA into plants and animals to produce transgenic organisms
organisms whose genetic material includes DNA from different species
EX: GMO: a organism that has had the sequence of its genome altered on purpose

44
Q

Mendels pea plants

A

7 chosen traits expressed in 2 distinguishable forms
began with true breeding plants called the parental generation
true breeding one form of trait were crossed with true breeding plants with the other form of the same trait
offspring was called F1 gen.
offspring of this was called the F2 gen.
one form of trait disappears in F1 and reappears in F2

45
Q

Mendelian ratio

A

ratio of plants with yellow seeds to plants with green seeds in F2 gen; 3:1:1

46
Q

law of segregration

A

traits are determined by pairs of alleles that segregate during meiosis so each gamete receives an allele

47
Q

law of independent assortment

A

during gamete formation the 2 alleles for one gene assort independently of alleles for the other gene

48
Q

monohybrid cross

A

only 1 trait is monitored in the cross and hybrid plants are produced

49
Q

dihybrid cross

A

2 traits are crossed

50
Q

test cross

A

cross between a parent of an unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive parentp

51
Q

pedigree

A

a flow chart that uses symbols to show the inheritance patterns of traits in a family over many generations

52
Q

autosomal inheritance

A

inheritance of traits whose genes are found on the autosomes-chromosomes 1 to 22

53
Q

autosomal dominant

A

disorders occur when disease causing alleles is dominant and on individual has 1 or both copies of alleles
child is not affected, but BOTH parents are (if heterozygous)

54
Q

autosomal recessive

A

disorders occur when the disease-causing allele is recessive and an individual has both copies of the allele
2 unaffected parents can have an affected child (if both parents are carriers, heterozygous)

55
Q

incomplete dominance

A

neither allele for a gene completely conceals the presence of the other: intermediate expression of a trait
heterozygote exhibits a phenotype that is somewhere between a dominant phenotype and a recessive one
EX: Familial Hyper-Cholesterolemia

56
Q

Co-dominance

A

both alleles for a trait are equally expressed in a heterozygote: both alleles are dominant
EX: sickle cell amenia

57
Q

multiple alleles

A

gene with more than 2 alleles
any individual has only 2 alleles for each gene - one alleles on each homologous chromosome
different alleles for a gene can exist within a population
EX: blood types

58
Q

polygenic traits

A

trait that exhibit continuous variation that are controlled by more than one gene

59
Q

polygene

A

group of genes that all contribute to the same trait

60
Q

Rh factor

A

inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells
if blood has the protein: Rh positive
if blood lack the protein: Rh negative

61
Q

Rh incompatibility

A

develops in pregnant women when mother is Rh negative and infant is Rh-positive, blood mixes when giving birth and mothers immune system will fight it off.

62
Q

environmental effects on inheritance

A

EX: temperature determines whether a gene is turned on or off

63
Q

linked genes

A

genes that do not assort independently

64
Q

linkage group

A

all of the genes on any chromosome

65
Q

crossing over and inheritance of linked genes

A

linked genes segregate on a regular basis due to crossing over in prophase I of meiosis
crossing over results: alleles of linked genes no longer being on the same chromosome : 4 gametes produced instead of 2

66
Q

sex linked traits

A

traits that are controlled by genes on either the X or Y chromosome

67
Q

X-linked genes

A

difference in expression of traits for genes that are found on the X-chromosome exhibited more often in males

68
Q

Y-linked genes

A

few, contains only 100 homologous genes

69
Q

disorder is X-linked dominant =

A

affected males pass the alleles only to daughter who have 100% chance of inheriting the disorder

70
Q

females can poss on X-linked dominant alleles to=

A

both sons and daughters
X-linked recessive traits affect more males than females

71
Q

CVD

A

red-green colour vision deficiency
X-linked recessive

72
Q

Hemophilia

A

cannot produce necessary blood clotting factor
X-linked recessive

73
Q

Hairy ears

A

hair grows on outside of ears
Y-linked Recessive

74
Q

Barr Bodies

A

inactive X chromosomes: every cell has only 1 functioning X chromosome that condenses into a Barr Body

75
Q

X-inactivation

A

random process that happens separately in individual cells during embryonic development, one cell might shut down
paternal X, another Maternal X

Biology 11 (5 decks)

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