Unit 1- 1855-1881 Flashcards
what dates were until 1 between?
1855-1881
when did Alexander II become Tsar?
1855
how many of the population were peasants?
90%
how many of the peasants were serfs?
90%
what percentage of the population were nobility?
1%
when was the crimean war?
1853-1856
when did Alexander II emancipate the serfs?
1861
how many serfs were freed?
23 million
what did free serfs have to pay?
a redemption payment for 49 years at 7% interest
words to describe russias economy
•pre-industrial
•agricultural
how many km was it from east to west russia?
6000
how many km was it from north to south Russia?
3000
what was their main transportation mean?
along rivers (there were few roads/ railways)
where is russia being led from?
the west
russians make up how much of the population?
nearly half
where did the vast majority of russians live?
in western russia
diversity in russia
there was a huge diversity of culture, religion and language. it makes establishing authority harder due to culture and language barriers
russias population 1855-1881
about 70 million
who were the nobility?
•less than 1% of people
•owned nearly all the land
•often had serfs who worked their land
•kept order through judicial and administrative roles
•some of them wanted reform
the middle class at this time
there was no middle class as there was no industry, however a small number of businessmen were in big cities
what were the two groups of peasants?
•serfs (slaves)
•state peasants (free)
how did state peasants get their land?
they had to pay rent to farm land owned by the church and other higher powers
what were the rights of serfs like?
they were very poor. serfs were tied to landed nobility, they had no rights and provided labour, getting a small piece of land in return
what was the main church in russia?
the russian orthodox church
what percentage of the population were in the russian orthodox church?
70%
what was the relationship between the church and the Tsar?
the church supported the tsar, who they saw as God’s official on Earth
what was the power of the Tsar like?
•Tsar was an autocrat who believed he had been appointed by God
•The Tsar could rule without constraints
who advised the Tsar?
the imperial council (nobles)
how were the people strictly controlled under the Tsar?
there was severe censorship, punishments and a secret police (the Third section), whose job it was to root out opposition
why was the tsar’s strict rule bad for russia?
it led to stunted economic/ social growth and growing resentment
3 problems with russia in 1855
•economic problems
•risk of revolution
•serfdom
who was the war in crimea between?
russia, france and britain
who lost the Crimean war?
the russians were badly defeated (humiliating 😬)
why did the russians lose in crimea?
•outdated technology
•poor transport
•weak leadership
what were the impacts of the crimean war in russia?
•trade disrupted
•peasant uprisings
•renewed calls for reform
what year was the empancipation edict?
1861
what are the 4 reasons why Alexander II may have abolished serfdom?
•economy (they need a workforce to industrialise)
•moral (western europe had moved on from it a long time ago, slavery is wrong)
•risk of revolt (peasant revolts had been increasing since the 1840s)
•crimean war (serfs in the war underperformed because they were malnourished and badly trained)
what did Alexander II say about abolishing serfdom?
“It is better to abolish serfdom from above, than wait for a time when it starts to abolish itself from below”
how many peasant disturbances were there in 1861 alone?
1000
how did the peasants, nobles and intelligentsia react to the emancipatory edict?
•peasants felt cheated and their anger grew
•nobles we’re disgruntled over compensation and felt they were losing power and status
•intelligentsia felt like the peasants had been betrayed
how long did the emancipation edict take to implement?
two years
by 1881 how many peasants were still obligated to their lord?
15%
how was the emancipation edict actually bad for the peasants?
•they often got less land then they had previously worked
•peasants were still under control of the now strengthened Mir
•by 1878 only 50% of peasants were capable of producing a surplus beyond bare subsistence
•they had to buy land and pay redemption payments over 49 years at 7%
what group of peasants benefited from the emancipation edict?
the kulaks, they did well on the land and made some wealth
by 1878 what percentage of peasants were capable of producing a surplus beyond bare subsistence?
only 50%
who were the peasants still tightly controlled by?
The Mir (local council)
what did the Mir do?
they worked out who got what land and collected payments from the peasants, they were also in charge of issuing internal passports
how did serf rights improve after the emancipation edict?
they could marry, travel, vote in local elections and trade
how were landowners compensated after the emancipation edict?
they were heavily compensated for their land as it was valued highly (landowners kept the best land) however they were not compensated for losing serfs
why was the emancipation of the serfs needed?
•the economy was suffering as it was reliant on serfdom
•90% of people were peasants, 90% of those being serfs, there was a high risk of revolt
•the industry needed workers
•russia was behind the rest of western europe
why was reform needed in russia’s judicial system?
•the system favoured the rich
•many judges had no legal training and were illiterate
•susceptible to bribes
•judges tended to be sexist and classist
•evidence couldn’t be disputed as the defendant couldn’t see the judge (not fair)
what was the reform in the judicial side of russia?
•judges were paid well and could not be dismissed
•they introduced a jury system in serious cases
•the system was simplified
•peasants could elect their own judge in village court
•they introduced prosecution and defence
what were the consequences of the reform to the judicial system?
•trials were fairer as the defendant had more protection
•there were fewer bribe attempts
•there were separate courts for peasants, emphasising the class divide
•government officials could not be tried in the system
•there was an articulate legal profession
what 6 aspects did Alexander II reform?
•emancipation of the serfs
•local government
•judicial
•military
•education
•censorship
why did Alexander need to reform the Local Government?
•the electoral system favoured the nobility
•they needed more control and new functions after the emancipation of the serfs
•it attempted to give power back to the nobles
how did Alexander reform the local governments?
•the zemstva was created, this was an elected district and provincial councils
•they provided better health, education and infrastructure
•they were elected so they were a better representative of the russian population
what were the consequences of the reform on local governments?
•members began to make demands for social reform and better living conditions
•they were dominated by the nobility
•the peasants were put off by the nobility so they rarely participated
•they improved local areas
•the people gained more political experience, so more people made demands
why did the military need to be reformed?
•the army performed badly in the Crimean War
•It’s army had to be modernised
•It was extremely expensive to maintain a vast army
what were the reforms done to the military?
•A Universal Conscription introduced, all social classes were liable for the military service at the age of 21
•standard length of service was reduced to 15 years
•it was easier to bring in reserves in a time of war
•the army was reorganised and training improved
what were the consequences of the reforms to the military?
•Russia had a smaller and more professional army
•it was still dominated by the nobility (as a fully professional army would have been a threat to the autocracy)
•still relies on mainly peasant conscriptions who were uneducated and illiterate
•nobility were angry that their offspring had to mix with lower classes
why did education need to be reformed?
•Alexander recognised that more people needed to be educated in order to create a modern state
what reforms were made to education?
•the zemstva ran the schools rather than the church
•secondary schools opened to all classes, as well as new primary/ secondary schools built
•there were investments in higher education
•the universities were made more relaxed and could govern themselves
•women could attend courses but not get a degree
•free primary education for all
•universities made self- governing in 1863
what were the consequences of education reforms?
•in the first decade of Alexander’s rule, the number of pupils roughly doubled
•the peasant population had new aspirations
•students began to play a more significant part in society
•number of primary schools grew from 8,000 to 25,000
•more educated people- who would then start questioning things and asking for reform
why did the censorship need to be reformed?
•the censorship system was rigid
•any publication deemed as dangerous was withdrawn
•a modern state doesn’t have tight censorship
•removing it would encourage the spread of new ideas
what reforms were made to censorship?
it was relaxed and editors were given more freedom
what were the consequences of the censorship being relaxed?
•editors pushed boundaries
•more books and periodicals published
•the public became better informed
when were the first assassination attempts on Alexander’s life?
1866
when did Alexander II die?
1881
what was Alexander II known as?
‘Tsar Liberator’
who are 3 of the people Alexander appoints after 1866?
•Tolstoy (minister for education)
•Shuvalov (Head of the Third section)
•Pahlen (minster of justice)
when was the period of Alexander’s counter-reform?
1866-1881
who initiated the counter reforms in education?
Tolstoy
how did Tolstoy change education?
•he tightened the control on education
•the zemstva’s power over education was reduced and given to the church
•two types of secondary schools (gimnazi [higher] and technical schools)
•students from technical schools could no longer attend university
•the universities liberal courses were replaced with more conservative ones, subjects that required critical thinking were removed
•a state teacher training programme was introduced, they were taught what to teach
who initiated counter reform changes to the police?
Shuvalov
what changes did Shuvalov make to the police?
•he tightened control
•he introduced the Third Section, a new secret police
•he persecuted religious and ethnic minorities
•searches and arrests increased
who made counter reform changes to the law?
Pahlen
what changes did Pahlen make to the Law?
•he tightened control of the law
•he introduced show trials with the intention of deterring revolutionary activity
•1878 political crimes only took place in secret courts
•showtrials are public trials with a pre-determined outcome and the intention of punishing the person being prosecuted to scare the population
•there it no justice, it is not fair
who was appointed in the late 1870s by Alexander?
Loris-Melikov
what was Loris-Melikov appointed as?
Minister for the Interior
what did Loris-Melikov do?
•released political prisoners
•relaxed censorship
•removed salt tax
•gave the zemstva more powers
•abolished the Third Section and created a new body, the Okhrana
What did Loris-Melikov suggest in 1880, and what happened?
•he suggested a new, but limited, state democracy
•Alexander signed this,he called his ministers to discuss it, but the next day he was assassinated
6 reasons why opposition grew 1855-1881
•relaxation of censorship
•creation of the zemstva
•reform of the judicial system
•repressive atmosphere after 1866
•education reforms
•hope and subsequent disappointment after the emancipation of the serfs
why did the relaxing of censorship cause opposition to grow?
the people had more freedom to express ideas and to encourage others to oppose the autocracy
why did the creation of the zemstva cause opposition to grow?
people became more politically educated and aware, they had also been given a taste of democracy
why did the reform of the judicial system cause opposition to grow?
they gave more education to normal people, the introduction of jury’s gave the people a taste of a more democratic way of getting justice, people were more politically informed
why did the repressive atmosphere after 1866 cause opposition to grow?
the people were angry and the counter-reforms revoked civilian freedoms. the third section was introduced, there was widespread unrest
how did the education reforms cause opposition to grow?
the people became more educated and literate, meaning they could spread and formulate new and innovative ideas criticising the suffocating Russian autocracy
how did the emancipation of the serfs cause opposition to grow?
the serfs felt cheated (many had less land, redemption payments over 47 years at 7%, under tight control of the Mir) people became resentful of the Tsar
what was liberal opposition?
mainly peaceful, they wanted democratic change
what was radical opposition?
mostly violent, they wanted revolution
what happened in 1869?
the communist manifesto is translated into Russian by Bakuhin
when was the communist manifesto translated into Russian?
1869
who translated the communist manifesto into russian?
Bakuhin
when was Das Kapital translated into Russian?
1872
6 stages of the Marxist theory
primitive communism- ancient society- feudalism- capitalism- socialism- communism
7 reasons why Opposition was significant under Alexander II
•I’m march 1881 they killed the Tsar
•the Narodniks carried out political assassinations and killed the head of the third section in 1878
•the ‘Young Russia’ group committed arson, destroying 2000 shops
•Spread of new Western ideas
•People’s Will had a spy in the Third Section
•Marxism published
•Radical opposition used printing to spread ideas
7 reasons why Opposition was not significant under Alexander II
•opposition failed to remove the autocratic system even after Alexander’s assassination
•the Narodniks attempts to infiltrate the peasants were unsuccessful as the peasants were extremely loyal to the Tsar
•The opposition were divided in their views and methods
•Alexander continued to reject ideas for change
•Opposition is small due to lack of education
•Repressive ideas (third section)
•Marxism is not yet relevant due to very little industrial workers
why was there only a small amount of opposition in the 19th century?
there was only a few literate and educated Russians, however the size and influence grew over time
what were the two groups of opposition?
•Westerners
•Slavophiles
what did the westerners believe in?
copying western ways/ culture in order to ‘catch up’
what did the Slavophiles believe in?
a superior ‘Russian’ path to a better future
why were the Zemstva dissapointed in Alexander II?
he was not prepared to give the zemstva national influence and restricted zemstva powers
why was 1891-92 a turning point for liberal members of the westerners?
•there was a famine and the Tsar did not help the people, initiating widespread resentment
•the zemstva were predominantly responsible for relief work, which convinced people the system had to change
what happens to liberal opposition during the period 1855-1881
•it grows
•it splits into two groups, westerners and slavophiles
who were the radical opposition predominantly made up of?
the children of liberals who wanted to go further than their parents
what was the first radical group to emerge?
Young Russia
what did Young Russia do in 1862?
they allegedly started a series of fires in St Petersburg which destroyed over 2000 shops
3 main radical thinkers
•Chernyshevsky
•Herzen
•Bakunin
what did Chernyshevsky believe?
that the peasants had to be the leaders of a revolutionary change
what did Herzen believe?
in a new peasant-based social structure
what did Bakunin believe?
that private ownership should be replaced with collective ownership and income should be based on number of hours worked
who were the Tchaikovsky Circle and what did they want?
they were a primarily literary society who sought political revolution and wanted to inspire the peasants by producing revolutionary pieces of literature
Who were the Narodniks?
a group opposing the autocratic regime and wanted to exploit the peasant resentment
what years did the Narodniks attempt to infiltrate peasant society?
in 1874 and 1876
why did the attempts by the Narodniks to enter peasant society fail? (1874 and 1876)
because the peasants were painfully loyal to the Tsar meaning that the group were reported and 1600 were arrested.
in later times the government held showtrials for the members
how many of the Narodniks were arrested in 1874?
1600
what did the Narodniks regroup as in 1877?
Land and Liberty
what year was Land and Liberty formed from the Narodniks?
1877
what did the Land and Liberty want?
they sought to work within the peasant communities and continue the populist tradition. some carried out political assassinations. they also talked to the zemstva in a desire for constitutional reform
who did Land and Liberty assassinate and when?
•the head of the Third Section
•1878
when did the land and liberty group divide?
1879
in 1879, what did the land and liberty group divide into?
•The Black Partition
•The People’s Will
what did the Black Partition want?
to share the black soil provinces of Russia amongst the peasants. They hoped to stimulate social change in a peaceful manner, without resorting to violence. The group was weakened by arrests in 1880-81
what did The People’s Will want?
they wanted reform, and they were willing to be violent. They places a spy in the Third Section and undermined the government by assassinating officials. They killed the Tsar in 1881
when was Alexander II assassinated?
1881
what were the significant things that The People’s Will did?
•planted a spy in the Third Section
•assassinated government officials
•killed the Tsar in 1881
what was Russia’s economic standing in 1860?
it was the least economically developed country of all the European powers
how was the emancipation financially straining for peasants in terms of buying land?
the landowners revived above market value for the land they were handing out to the peasants meaning the peasants had to pay more than it was worth
when was Von Reutern economic minister?
1862-1878
who was economic minister under Alexander II?
Von Reutern
when did Von Reutern introduce a state bank?
1860
when were tariffs reduced to promote trade?
1863
what was the annual growth rate during Alexander II’s reign?
6%
what happened to the number of primary schools and university students in Alexander II’s reign?
they tripled
when was the reactionary period?
1866-1881
when was the Zemstva made?
1864
when were 3 assassination attempts on Alexander II’s life?
1866, 1879, 1880
how were Alexander II’s education reforms half hearted?
secondary schools still required fees to be paid
what 3 things did Loris-Melikov do?
•relaxed censorship
•removed the salt tax
•abolished the third section
evidence showing that alexander II was increasingly concerned with threat of peasant revolt
by 1857 Alexander commissioned weekly reports on the moods of the peasants
