unit 1 Flashcards
behavioral
how we learn observable responses: we learn through rewards, punishments and observable behaviors
biological
how the body & brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences: our brain structure and chemistry (neurotransmitters, hormones, etc.) influence our actions and emotions
cognitive
how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information: our THOUGHTS impact behaviors and emotions.
evolutionary
how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes: How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?
humanistic
how we achieve personal growth and self-fulfillment: How can we work toward fulfilling our potential? How can we overcome barriers to our personal growth?
psychodynamic
how behavior springs from childhood trauma or evil animal instincts: How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained by unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?
social-cultural
how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures: our society places expectations on us -gender, religious, socioeconomic, rural/urban, etc.
case study
one person or situation is observed in depth
survey
used in both descriptional & correlational research where people respond to questions
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in a natural environment
experimental research
to explore cause and effect
manipulates one or more variables
uses random assignment
pro
- specific cause & effect
- controlled variables
con
- results don’t generalize
- not ethical to manipulate certain variables
- sometimes not feasible
quasi-experimental research
research that manipulates factors to test an idea, doesn’t include random assignment to control groups
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
longitudinal research
data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a long period of time; observational study
cross-sectional research
data is collected from a population or a representative subset, at a specific point in time; observational study
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many diff research studies
correlational research
to detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another
no manipulation
pro
- works with large groups of data
may be used in situations where an experiment would not be ethical or possible
con
- doesn’t specify cause & effect
descriptive research
to observe and record behavior
case studies, nat. obs., or surveys
no manipulation
pro
- only one participant for case studies
- nat obs may be done when it is not ethical to manipulate variables
- surveys may be done quickly and inexpensively
con
- uncontrolled variables mean cause and effect cannot be determined
- single cases may be misleading
pros vs con: case study
pro
- good source of hypothesis
- indepth info on people
- unusual cases can shed light on unethical or impractical situations
con
- vital info maybe missing
- memories may be selective or inaccurate
- may not be representative or typical
pros vs con: nat obs
pro
- good description
- useful in first stages of research program
con
- little to no control
- maybe biased observations
- doesn’t allow firm conclusions about cause & effect
pros vs con: lab obs
pro
- more control than nat obv
- allows use of sophisticated equipment
con
- allow researcher only limited control
- maybe biased observations
- doesn’t allow firm conclusions about cause & effect
- behavior may differ from behavior in natural environ.
pros vs con: test
pro
- yield info
con
- difficult to construct tests that are reliable & valid
pros vs con: survey
pro
- large data from large ppl
con
- non representative or biased
- inaccurate or untrue responses
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, you knew it all along
who believed the relationship between mind and body are connected?
Hebrews, Aristotle & Augustine
who believed the relationship between mind and body are distinct parts?
Socrates, Pluto, Descartes
Who believed ideas are inborn?
Socrates & Pluto
Who believed ideas come from a blank slate?
Aristotle & John Locke
Who is Dorothea Dix and what did she do?
American advocate of mentally ill
created first ever mental asylums during civil war to help rather than torture/isolate patients
Who created structuralism & what is it?
Wilhelm Wundt
- established the 1st psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany
Focus: to study consciousness; how elements of the brain are organized and related to one another
** used introspection
Who created functionalism & what is it?
William James
- created first distinct american school of pscyhology
Focus: how consciousness functions to help people adapt to their environments
** used introspection, questionnaires, and mental tests
Who created Gestalt Psychology & what is it?
Max Wertheimer
Focus: consciousness can be best understood by observing the whole experience rather than trying to break it down into a cluster of component elements
CATCHPHRASE: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Who created psychoanalysis & what is it?
Sigmund Freud
- first to focus on abnormal behaviors
Focus: all behavior and mental processes are directed by unconscious forces
* used free association and dream analysis to explore the unconscious mind
Sigmund Freud believed problems arise due to
unresolved conflict in the unconscious mind
Who created behaviorism & what is it?
JB Watson & BF Skinner
Focus: psychology could only study what could be observed and measure objectively [watson] & solely external factors shape behaviors, thoughts not relevant [skinner]
nature vs nurture debate
whether human traits are based on biology or one’s environment and experiences
biopsychosocial approach
It combines the biological, psychological, and social influences on an individual’s health behaviors and overall health
biological influences: genes, natural selection
psychological influences: learned fears & expectations, emotional responses, cognitive processes
social-cultural influences: the presence of others, cultural & societal expectations, peer influences, social media
psychology vs psychiatry
psychology: studies, assesses, and treats troubled people with psychotherapy
psychiatry: med professionals who use treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients
Who is Mary Whiton Calkins?
studied under William James, first woman president of APA
Who is G Stanley Hall?
first American to earn PhD in psychology, and first president of the APA
Who is Margaret Floy Wahburn
first female to earn PhD in psychology
What is the APA
scientific and professional organization of psychologists founded in 1892 at Clark University
correlation doesn’t prove
causation
confirmation bias
when you look for evidence to confirm your beliefs while ignoring other evidence that may disprove it
pseudoscience
popular beliefs that seem to be related to science like clairvoyance
what is the scientific attitude
curiosity, skepticism, humility
theory
testable explanation
hypothesis
testable prediction
operational definitions
precise definitions of a variable being observed so that it is measurable and managable (allows for replication)
experiments are the only method that
isolates a cause & effect
representative sample
a smaller group that gives a snapshot of the total population
random sample
everyone in the pop has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study to generalize findings
stratified sample
the population is divided into relevant subcategories and a random sample is taken from each subcategory
random assignment
the researcher randomly assigns participants to the experimental or control group to eliminate the pre-existing differences of groups
experimental group
group that receives special treatment
control group
participants who do not receive the experimental treatment
independent variable
“CAUSE”
factor manipulated
dependent variable
“EFFECT”
factor that may change in response and is being measured
placebo
fake treatment
single-blind procedure
participants don’t know what group they are in
double-blind procedure
participants nor the person gathering data know which group is control or experimental
measures of central tendency
[distribution of scores]
mean (avg), median (middle), mode (most freq)
measures of variability
range (diff between highest and smallest #s), standard deviation (avg diff between score and mean)
normal distribution produces a
a bell-shaped curve
what is most impacted by skewed distribution
mean
positive skew is also known as _____ & has a tail on the _____
right skew, right
negative skew is also known as _____ & has a tail on the _____
left skew, left
inferential statistics
inference that if something happened in sample, it will happen for whole population
null hypothesis
no difference between two sets
purpose: til research shows there is a diff, the research must assume that any diff is due to chance
statistical significance
any difference observed is probably NOT due to chance, and diff is read
data is significant when
95% or greater likelihood that any difference is due to an independent variable (p<= 0.05)
validity
accuracy, when the experiment measures exactly what you want to measure
reliability
consistent results when repeated
who determines its ethical?
American Psychological Association (APA) Code Of Ethics - 1953
Institutional Review Board (IRB) - panel approves research
informed consent
must inform potential participants about every part of the study that might influence their decision to participate and ensure participation is voluntary
assent
minor cannot give written consent, so the experimenter must continuously get assent from child to proceed
limited deception
must only decieve people when it is absolutely essential to study
must tell about deception at the end of the study during debriefing
how does protection from harm and discomfort make it ethical?
must minimize any discomfort or risk involved in the sutdy and must act to prevent participants from suffering any long term negative consequences
freedom to particpate or withdraw at any time
confidentiality
must keep personal info about the participants a secret, report results in such a way that personal info is not disclosed
debriefing
must reveal all relevant info about the research and correction any misimpressions it created
participants must leave the study the way the arrived
IF ANY DECEPTION OCCURS, IT MUST BE DISCLOSED BEFORE PEOPLE LEAVE
why are animals used in research
because behavior is interesting
because research with animals can give information that would be impossible or unethical to collect from humans
who says animal research is ethical
APA code of ethics 1953
institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)
What makes animal research ethical
ABC of laboratory animal research
Appropriate - nothing cruel and unusual
Beneficial - must benefit human psychological research
Caring - must care for animal’s well being
what does PSYCH stand for in ETHICS
P - privacy/confidentiality
S - sign informed consent
Y - why, reasoning/debriefing
C - curb deception
H - harmless
what should consent forms include
reason for study
declaration of potential harm
state voluntary nature of decision
benefits of participation
permission to record
