Unit 1 Flashcards
Introduction
- History of reducing & replacing Problem Bx, put into context
- 2 Approaches
1. Topography-based txt model
2. Function-based txt model
Experimental Roots of ABA
*Early applications of behavior analysis were conducted by graduates from behavioral experimental psychology programs
The Early Days of ANA (1950s-1960s)
- Skinner’s students & other EAB trained persons go “beyond the box: ….from lab to life! (1950s- 1960s)
- They worked in “mental” hospitals, developmental centers, prisons schools and in the community
- Rutherford (2009)
The Pioneers of ABA
- Used methods of EAB to:
- Fig out what to do
- Evaluate thr effectiveness
- Were excellent prob solvers
- Solid grounding in the principles of operant & respondent learning
- ABA formalized in 1968 due to thr work
“Don’t Call, Us, Call Them…”
- Many early Bx analysts were sent referrals for: Cases others had tried but failed “The Deep End cases”, Severe & persistent problems
- The referral sources wanted us to do “Bx Mgmt” rather than doing “Therapy” or teaching skills
Demand for Behavioral Services
- Some early bx analysts focused on teaching skills, esp to young children with autism
- Still the greatest demand at the time was for bx analysts willing to work in severe bx
Behavior Modification
- Cookbook approach
- Topography-based
- Technologists
- Procedures at its core
Behavior analysis
- Individualized
- Function-based
- Analysts
- Basic principles at its core
ABA Resurfaces
*The function-Based approach takes hold due to:
- Pressure from human rights advocates to ban aversive & restrictive procedures
- A new generation of applied researchers starting in the late 1970s & blossoming in the 1990s
Problem Behavior
- Persistent pattern of Bx that interferes with attainment of meaningful outcomes. Problem Bx May:
- Minimize access to reinforcers
- Max likelihood of contacting punishers
- Result in restricted access to the community
Types of Problems With Behavior:
Topography Issues
- Criminal/ illegal
- Harmful/ dangerous or presents a health risk
- Damaging to property or materials
- Likely to become severe/ serious
- Of great concern to caregivers
- Interferes with access/ participation in the community or social relations
- Having a negative impact on work/ school performance
Types of Problems with Bx Parameter Issues:
- Rate
- IRT
- Duration
- Severity (too severe) or intensity (too intense)
- Occurs at the wrong time or place
Give at least one reason why behavior would be categorized as problematic:
“minimizes access to reinforcers,” “maximizes likelihood of contacting punishers,” or “results in restricted access to the community”
Other Terms for Problem Behavior
- Severe prob Bx (focus of most research & practice)
- Challenging bx
- Maladaptive bx
- Bx excesses
- Bx problems
Some Questions for Identifying Problem Bx
-Criminal/ illegal?
-Life-threatening to self or other?
-Harmful/ dangerous to self or others?
-Presenting a health risk to sell or others?
-Damaging property or materials?
-Likely to become severe or serious?
great concern to caregivers?
-Interfering with access to, participation in or acceptance in the community?
-Interfering with social relations?
-Having neg impact on performance in school or work?
Reference for the questions
-Some of the previous questions are from the “subjective assessment of prob bx scale” with some modifications
Some General Terms for Procedures for Problem Behavior
- Bx reduction procedures
- Decelerative or decal procedures
- Abative procedures
- Contingency-breaking procedures
- Replacement procedures: Reducing bx is not solely accomplished by using punishment/ Extinction!
Topography of Behavior:
*The physical nature of the response e.g. Raising my hand
Topography-Based Treatment Model
*Non-individualized treatment model in which treatment is selected based on the form of the response & selected treatments often involve the use of powerful Rxs & punishers
History of the Topography-Based Treatment Model
*1960s - 1980s: Treatments commonly based on topography of the Bx prob
Use of Powerful Consequences in the Topography-Based Model
- Powerful Rxs for:
- Absence of the prob bx
- Occurrence of incompatible &/ or appropriate Bx
- Powerful punishers for:
- Prob bx
- Precursors to prob Bx
“CookBook” Approach
Approach in which the treatment is selected based on the Topography of the response rather than being customized to the person & Function of the Bc
-A 1-size fits all approach
Analytical Failure of the Topography-Based Model
- There was a Technological drift & analysis was forgotten
- Structural approach
The Topography-Based Model Resulted in the Proliferation of:
- Differential Rx of other Bx (DRO)
- Artificial & often unhealthy Rxs e.g. candy, cigs
- Highly aversive or restrictive consequences for prob Bx e.g. water mist, restraints
Common Targets in the Topography-Based Model
- “Dead person” Bx (the absence of bx)
- “Be quiet, be docile, be still”
- “Good being quiet”
- Good sitting
- Good quiet hands
- Compliance
- Do what I tell you to do
The topography-based model relies on _______ reinforcers and punishers.
-powerful
Limitations of the Topography-Based Treatment Model
- Actual reinforcer maintaining the prob bx were not withheld
e. g. time-out used even if the bx was maintained by social neg Rx - Actual maintaining consequences not used to increase replacement Bx
Limitations of the Topography-Based Treatment Model (Con…t)
- Contingent relations btw prob bx & maintaining consequences not broken
- Prob bx was suppressed under tight stimulus control
- Changes in Bx failed to maintain & generalize
Function of Behavior Revisited
*Effect of a response on the Environment E.g: Johnny and Sue’s aggression
Function-Based Treatment Model
*Relies on the analysis of the function of Bx to develop individualized treatment plans
E.g. of Function-Based Treatment
- Mary spits & ppl back away
- Function determined: Escape
- Function-based treatment: Mary taught to say. “Back up”
Advantaged of the Function-Based Treatment Model
- Keeps “Analysis” in Bx analysis
- Treatments selected based on function of Bx
- Not relent on arbitrary, powerful reinforcers & punishers
- More effective
- Aversive/ restrictive procedures seldom used
Name two advantages of the function-based treatment model:
“The function-based treatment model is more effective and allows for less use of aversive and restrictive procedures,” or listed other advantages such as, “It allows for individualized treatment, addresses the actual contingencies surrounding the problem behavior, doesn’t rely on arbitrary powerful reinforcers and punishers, and promotes the ongoing analysis of behavior.”
Function-Based Treatment Model: Key Developments
- “Communicative function of problem Bx” & the functional assessment movement
- The Functional analysis (or experimental analysis) movement
- Brian Iwata & colleagues
“Communicative Function of Problem Behavior”
- Resulted in development of:
- Functional (descriptive) assessment
- Functional communication training & replacement bx
- Different trt procedures for different “functions” of bx
- For e.g. extinction for Bx maintained by Sr+ Vs. Sr-
More Effects of “Communicative Function of Problem Behavior”
- Proliferation of “antecedent interventions”
- Proactive instead of reactive
- Punishment-based & other restrictive or aversive interventions used minimally or not at all
- Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS)
Of the following, which were some of the effects of Carr and colleagues’ “communicative functions of behavior”?
(check all that apply)
- Development of Functional Assessments
- Development of Functional communication training
- A proliferation of “Antecedent interventions”
The Functional Analysis Movement
*Brian Iwata & his “discovery” of functional analysis & of developing function-based trt protocols for severe prob Bx
Superiority of the Function-Based Treatment Model
- Interventions designed based on the function of Bx are effective
- 1000s of ABA research studies have demonstrated unprecedented success of function-based trt in 1000s off cases!
- Aversive & restrictive interventions are seldom used
*Limitations of the Function-Based Treatment Model
- Most research studies have been done with persons with severe autism or severe to profound developmental disabilities
- Practitioners sometimes target incorrect replacement Bx
Reinforcement
*An Environmental change that follows a response closely in time, is contingent on that response & increases the probability of similar responses under similar circumstances
Building Repertoires
- Bxs that contact reinforcement are strengthened
- Expand our behavioral repertoires through operant selection
- Selection of Bx by the Env
Some Types of Reinforcement
- Positive reinforcement
- Social
- Automatic
- Negative reinforcement
- Social
- Automatic
Socially Mediated Positive Reinforcement
- Consequence (reinforcement) for the response is mediated by another person
- Specifically, an appetitive stimulus is added to the Env following the Response
Automatic Positive Reinforcement
- Consequence (reinforcement) for the response is directly produced by the response
- Specifically, an appetitive stimulus/ sensation is added
Socially Mediated Negative Reinforcement
- Consequence (Rx) for the response is mediated by another person
- Specifically, an aversive stimulus is Removed from the Env following the response
Automatic Negative Reinforcement
- Consequence (Rx) for the response is directly produced by the response
- Specifically, an aversive stimulus/ sensation is removed
4 General Categories of Functions of Behavior
- Behavior maybe maintained by:
1. Social positive Rx
2. Automatic positive Rx
3. Social negative Rx
4. Automatic negative Rc
Function in Everyday Language
*What something does & the aim of the doing
*This has led to practitioners using teleological explanations
E.g. He is doing X to get Y
Function and Functional Relation in Science
- In Bx analysis, func ion is used in its mathematical sense (Skinner 1953)
- A Functional relation is simply a mathematical relation btw 2 or more variables
Functional Relation in Behavior Analysis
- Functional relations exist btw stimulus classes & response classes
- Stimulus class (antecedents &/ or consequences) = Independent variable
- Response class = dependent variable
Functional Relations in Behavior Analysis (Con..t)
- A Functional Relation is said to exist when changes in a stimulus class (antecedent/ consequences) result in orderly, reliable & predictable changed in members of a response class (bx)
- Probabilistic relations
Characteristics of Functional Relations
- Probabilistic- Not cause & effect or deterministic
- Nonlinear
- Complex
- Change over time with respect to changing conditions (e.g, context)
- Enable predictions
- Reliable & consistent
Contingencies & Relations
- An event that is truly contingent on another only occurs if the event occurs (e.g. thunder only occurs of there is lightening)
- Contingent relations are typically weaker than “if & only if X, then Y”
- The dependencies are probabilities
Contingency Vs. Functional Relation
- Contingencies have effects on:
- Bx
- Functional relations btw Env events & Bx
- Functional relations are established & observed but it’s incorrect to say that a functional relation had an effect
- Contingencies lead to the development of functional relations, but not vice versa
Contingencies & Functional Relations
*The stronger the contingent relation btw a stimulus class & a response class the more probable that we will find an orderly, reliable & predictable functional relation btw the 2
Contingencies and Functional Relations (con…t)
*The stronger the contingent relation btw 2 or more stimulus classes, the more probable that a new functional relation will develop btw a “neutral” stimulus class & the response class that was previously functionally related to the other stimulus class
What Was That Last Think I said?
- Stimulus, when in a contingency relation with other stimuli also have effects on other stimuli
- These other, neutral stimuli will probably have an effect on the response class that was functionally related to the previously effective stimulus
Antecedents, Contingencies and Functional Relations
- When antecedents are functionally related to operant bx, they are labeled specific terms depending on the relation to responses & other stimuli such as consequences for e.g. Sd for Rx
- Functional relations are established by strong contingencies
Antecedents in Operant Relations
- Stimulus change b4 a response
- 2 categories
- Discriminative Stimuli
- Motivating operations
- Evoke/ Abate Bx
Discriminative Stimuli
- An antecedent stimulus that evokes or abates a specific Bx due to a history if differential Rx/ punishment in the presence or absence of that antecedent stimulus
- Bx altering effect due to availability
Motivating Operations
- An antecedent environmental variable that increases or decreases the effectiveness of a consequence & thus evokes/ abates a response
- Bx altering effect due to the value altering effect t
Reasons for Effects of Antecedents in Operant Relations
- Sd stimuli gain their effect due to a history of a consequence in the presence of that antecedent
- Motivating operations gain thr effect by altering the effectiveness of a consequence
Effects of Contingencies
- Contingent relation btw Bx & an Env event can develop a functional relation btw tht bx & that bx & that event
- Contingencies can alter the effects of other stimuli
Antecedents and Behavioral Functions
- Behavior can be evoked by:
- Absence of social positive Rx
- Absence of automative positive Rx
- Presence of aversive social stimuli
- Presence of aversive stimuli
With their behavior-altering effect, antecedents in operant relations:
*Evoke and abate Behavior
Effects of Operant Antecedents are Dependent on Consequences
- Operant antecedents (Sds & MOs) never function independently of consequences
- The effects depend upon their relation to consequences
- Antecedents have “last names”
Motivating Operations and Consequences
- MOs derive their effect on Bx due to their establishing/ abolishing effect on specific consequences which have reinforced or punished a response class in the past
- Last name of MO refers to the consequence whose value is being altered
Last Name of Discriminative Stimuli
Refers to the type of consequence which led to the development of that Sd
Practical Implications for Assessment
- Allows identification of the context(s) under which the problem Bx occurs most & least frequently
- One can make hypotheses about contingencies & functional relations which can be verified experimentally
Which conditions would likely produce the highest rates of behavior?
*EO & Sd present for Sr
Which conditions would likely produce the lowest rates of behavior?
*AO and Delta present for Sr
Practical Implications for Treatment
- Can begin to identify actual contingencies & functional relations
- Develop individualized treatments based on function
Function of Behavior Revisited
- Function of Behavior: Effect of a response on the environment
- All Bx happens for a reason
- Function is why it occurs & why it continuous to occur (maintain)
Learned Functions of Behavior
-Learned through interactions with the Env
*Behavior is maintained by:
- Social positive reinforcement
- Automatic positive reinforcement
- Social negative reinforcement
- Automatic negative reinforcement
Antecedents and Behavioral Functions:
Positive Reinforcement
- Behavior evoked by absence of appetitive condition (social or nonsocial) E.g.
- Social: Low attention
- Automatic: No sensory stimulation
Antecedents & Behavioral Functions:
Negative Reinforcement
- Bx evoked by present of aversive stimuli (Social or nonsocial) E.g.
- Social: Smelly person
- Automatic: Tingling nerve path
What does the term “function” mean in behavior analysis as it pertains to behavior?
“Function refers to the relevant antecedents that evoke behavior and consequences that maintain behavior
Functional Relation
- Relation btw a stimulus class & a response class
- Contingencies lead to the development of functional relations
- Functional relations are established & observed
Function-Based Treatment Model
*Relies on the analysis of the function of bx to develop individualized treatment plans
Functional Behavior Assessment
- Assessment of functional relations btw Bx & the Env
- AKA functional behavioral assessment or functional assessment
Functional Behavior Assessment Purpose
- Identification of functional relations btw bx & the env
- Identifying antecedents that evoke bx
- Identifying consequences that maintain bx
Functional Assessment And Treatment
- Function should drive treatment, not Topography (Form)
- Results of the functional assessment are used to guide treatment development
- A tool to facilitate the design of function-based treatments
Functional Assessment And Treatment (Con..t)
- Break the contingency btw bx & the maintaining consequence
- Arrange alternative means for gaining access to the maintaining consequences
- Arrange antecedent conditions to prevent prob bx
Levels of Functional Assessment
- Indirect Assessment
- Observation-Based Assessment:
- Descriptive Assessment
- Experimental Assessment
Indirect Assessment
- A process in which info is gathered on Bx through descriptions & recollections rather than through direct observation
- Interviews
- Questionnaires
- Rating scales
- Checklists
Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS)
- Assesses possible functions of problem Bx
* 16 question, each categorized into 4 functions
Problem Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ)
*Assesses possible functions of problem bx via questions with a range of never to al; of the time
PBQ Limitations
- Evaluates a multitude of behavioral forms
* Reliability & info regarding accuracy of the PBQ is limited
Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST)
*Assesses function of problem bx by collecting “Yes” or “No” responses regarding the relevance of statements
FAST in the Literature
- Iwata et al (2013)
- Evaluated the reliability & the validity of the FAST
- Reliability & Validity results were not high
Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF)
*Assesses potential function of problem Bx via statements, with a 4-point range
QABF in the Literature
- Zaja et al. (2011)
- Assessed the quality of the QABF across 3 types of Bx
- Found sufficient reliability
- Matson & Boisjoli (2007)
- QABF results found to be less reliable for Bxs maintained by multiple functions
Benefits of Indirect Assessment for Prob Behavior
- Efficient
- Less intrusive
- Minimizes risks
- Good for low-rate or covert Bx
Interrater Agreement
Extent to which 2 individuals rate something similarly
Indirect Assessment in the Literature: Interrater Validity
- Smith et al. (2912) evaluated interrupter agreement across multiple respondents of the MAS & QABF
- MAS agreement: 52%
- QABF agreement: 57%
Indirect Assessment in the Literature: Interrater Validity
- Iwata et al. (2013) evaluated reliability of the FAST
- Agreement evaluated by comparing informant’s highest totals
- Agreement was 64.8%
Interrater Validity Take-Home Point
- Indirect assessments are based on reports of bx
- Reports are subjective
- Interrater agreement isn’t great
Interrater agreement, in regard to indirect assessments, refers to the degree to which multiple raters agree on the function of a target behavior.
a. True
b. False
a. True
Convergent Validity
*Degree to which 2 measures of the same construct are correlated
Tarbox et al. 2009 Results
Indirect and direct assessment methods produced both partial & exact agreement for 2 of 7 participants
Limitations of Indirect Assessment for Problem Behavior
- Subjective & relies on recollections
- Info obtained maybe skewed or biased
- Limited regarding idiosyncratic variables
- Poor agreement btw raters (interrupter agreement)
- Accuracy of hypotheses not great (poor convergent validity)
Use of Indirect Assessment for Problem Behavior
- Should not be relied upon as only assessment method
- Use as starting point
- Include open-ended questions
- Use multiple informants that have observed the individual in multiple contexts
- May be more accurate for higher-rate Bx
Descriptive Assessment
*Direct assessment method in which Bx is observed & measured in the real-life context without manipulation of environmental variables
Descriptive Assessment
- Observe across variety of situation in the natural env
- Record events that precede & follow problem Bx
- Helps to identify patterns
- Often utilizes conditional probabilities to identify antecedent conditions like to problem Bx
Methods of Descriptive Assessment
-Narrative recording
-ABC data collection
Open-ended
Coded
-Scatterplot with pattern analysis
Narrative Recording
An observer produces a written description of the individual’s Bxs & the Environmental conditions under which those bxs occur over a period of time
-AKA anecdotal observation
ABC Data Collection
- An observer records all occurrences of specific target Bxs antecedent & consequent events (typically on a standardized data form)
- AKA ABC recording
Purpose of ABC Data Collection
- To gather data on the environmental events that precede & follow a target bx
- Allows analysis of commonalities in the sequence of events
- Facilitates identification of potential functional relations
Conditional Probability
*In Bx analysis, the likelihood that given an event, context or Bx the target Bx will occur
Conditional Probability (Con..t)
- Mathematically interprets the relation btw the event that preceded the response (A), a precursor or the event that follows the response (C)
- Provides a score from 0-1 about the likelihood that, given a specific (A) or (C) the Bx will occur
Calculating Conditional Probability
- Computed by Calculating:
- The proportion of occurrences of target Bx that were preceded by a certain antecedent variable or precursor
- The proportion of occurrences of target bx that were followed by a certain consequence
Problem Bx Given Antecedent Calculation
*Probability of Prob Bx given antecedent
- A = Determine # of times prob Bx occurred following that antecedent
- B = Determine # of times prob Bx occurred overall
- Calculated A/B to determine probability
Conditional Probability of a Consequence Given Target Bx
- A = #Bx followed by consequence
- B = Total # of responses
- Calculate A/B to determine probability
Conditional Probabilities in Descriptive Assessment
- Used to analyze descriptive assessment data
- Allows mathematical interpretation of Data
- Leads to hypotheses about function
Scatterplot
*A data collection form for recording the times of day during which a Target Bx has occurred, typically involving dividing the days of the week into blocks of time
Utility of Scatterplots in Problem Bx Assessment
- Helps us know when bx occurs
- Reveals when we should be observing
- Allows us to focus on Sds/ Eos that maybe present or absent during those times
- Helps to compare contexts in which Bx does & does not occur
Which of the following can a scatterplot show?
check all that apply
- Times of the day Bc is likely to occur
* Times of the day bx is not likely to occur
Descriptive Assessment Advantages
- Direct method of assessment allows us to see Bx in context
- Info about a broader range if antecedents & consequences
Descriptive Assessment Limitations
- More effortful than indirect assessment
- Reactivity
- Potentially inadequate samples of Bx
- Conclusions are correlational
- Poor convergent validity
Convergent Validity of Descriptive Assessment: Tarbox et al. (2009)
- Compared agreement across indirect, descriptive assessment & experimental functional analysis
- Descriptive assessment & functional analysis resulted in partial & exact agreement for only one of the 7 participants
Convergent Validity of Descriptive Assessment: Borrero et al. (2016)
- Compared assessment agreement across descriptive assessment & functional analysis for inappropriate mealtime bxs
- Assessed food refusal in 10 children
- Descriptive & functional analysis matched for 71% of the participants
Description Assessment Convergent Validity: Take-Home Points
*Descriptive assessment can provide info but convergent validity isn’t great with experimental analysis
Descriptive Assessment Use
- Use unobtrusive observation techniques
- Ensure observers are trained
- Collect data across a range of contexts
- Conditional probability analysis
Functional Assessment Impact
- Changes in treatment culture
- Focus change from form to function of prob bx
- Focus change from punishment-based to Rx-based procedures
- More effective treatment
Functional Assessment for Effective Treatment
-Kahng et al. 2002
- Gradual decrease in punishment
- Dramatic increase in Rx-based procedures
- Greater reductions in prob bx when treatment was based on a functional analysis
Functional Assessment Summary
- Functional Assessment is a process
- Includes indirect & direct methods
- Used to identify potential functional relations
- Focuses on the function of Bx
- Leads to function-based treatment
In general, the functional assessment process starts with a(n) assessment, then moves to a(n) assessment, and finally concludes with a functional. .
- Indirect
- Descriptive
- Analysis
